Zulu bridal couple from South Africa. Marriage ceremonies often include visible signs of the new social status of the bride and groom, such as wedding rings, distinctive headdress and garments, and ornaments.
Age Roles and Rites of Passage (1 of 3)
Age is an important marker of social differences in all societies. Everywhere some people are treated differently from others according to their age, and are expected to behave in a socially approved way. These expectations define the roles that people play and thus are known as age roles. Although age roles are universal, the expectations that define them are cultural; that is, they are the product of a people's shared history and experience and therefore they vary from society to society and over time.
Rites of passage are rituals or ceremonies that mark the movement of individuals or groups from one social status to another (such as birth, puberty, marriage, and death). Since many changes of social status are associated with age - becoming an adult, for example - there is often a close connection between rites of passage and changing age roles.
Significance of age roles and rites of passage
Societies differ in the importance they attach to age roles and changes in social status. Until recently, traditional tribal societies in Africa and elsewhere attached great significance to age as a determinant of social position. The Masai of East Africa, in common with many other pastoral, nomadic societies, organize their social, political and economic life around age groupings. These age groupings, which anthropologists call age sets, age grades, or age cohorts, typically span 10-15 years.
Both males and females are divided into age groupings among the Masai. Male age sets are the most significant in the public sphere. Masai distinguish between boys, warriors and elders, and rites of passage mark the transitions between them. Boys have no independent role in Masai society: they learn from men and are close to their mothers, sisters and other females. Boys become warriors in an initiation ceremony that marks them physically and removes them socially from the sphere of women. All Masai boys are circumcised, although individual groups of Masai follow different practices relating to facial scarification and the removal of teeth.
Warriors have the responsibility of herding the cattle - the mainstay of Masai life. The search for water and pasture for the cattle may take them away from the home camps for many months of the year. They live a communal and egalitarian life. After 10-15 years' service the warriors become elders. It is the role of the elders to stay at home and run public affairs. They are the decision-makers of Masai society. Men are allowed to marry only when they become elders.
Age roles in traditional and modern societies
The spread of new ideas and technologies from the developed world produces new ways of living in traditional Third World societies. Most significantly, men and women become less dependent on traditional structures for their opportunities in life. Age roles and rites of passage cease to be dominant features of social life in a modernized society.
Although modern societies stress individualism and personal achievement, social relations are still frequently recognized by age. Age is formally and legally significant in many areas of life in modern societies. It determines when people go to school, when they may leave school, when they may marry, when they may enter full-time employment, when they have to leave employment and so on. Age is often used as the basis for assigning rights and duties to people in society. Ideas of physical and psychological growth and change often support the divisions based on age.
In recent times the term ageism has been used to describe the assessment of people solely in terms of age. As with the pejorative terms sexism and racism, the term implies criticism of the use of unchangeable (ascribed) characteristics as a criterion of assessment by a society that purports to judge people according to what they have achieved.
Anthropologists have noted that in both traditional and modern societies the relationships between adjacent generations (parents and children) tend to be difficult. In contrast the relationships between alternate generations (grandparents and grandchildren) tend to be less problematic. It has been suggested that the social maturing of children signals to parents their own social decline. Grandparents and grandchildren are not in competition for power and control and so enjoy relatively harmonious relations.
Analysis of rites of passage
The French anthropologist and folklorist Arnold van Gennep (1873-1957) demonstrated that all rites of passage have a common form. He identified three phases in every ritual ceremony: the phase of separation, the phase of transition and the phase of incorporation. As individuals change status they are separated from their old associations and relationships. They move into limbo, a state of betwixt and between, in which they have left the old but not yet assumed the new. In the final phase they take on their new status and join others of like status.
Van Gennep pointed out that different rites of passage stress different phases, though all are present within each ritual or ceremony. In funeral ceremonies the emphasis is on the separation of the deceased and the bereaved. In Christian baptism and in the Jewish brit milah (circumcision) the emphasis is on incorporation - the joining of a religious community.
The Scottish New Year celebration of Hogmanay illustrates Van Gennep's three phases. A stranger (one who is separate) crosses the threshold (transition between inside and outside) just after midnight (transition in time from one day to another) and is welcomed (incorporated) into the household as the bringer of the New Year (having left the old year behind). Hogmanay is a rite of passage in the sense that it marks the symbolic death and rebirth of the year.
There is no generally accepted scheme for classifying different types of rites of passage, and there tends to be much overlap between the categories sometimes used to describe related types of rite. Life-cycle ceremonies are connected with the biological changes of life and include rituals surrounding childbirth, puberty, marriage and death. Ceremonies of social transformation include all such life-cycle ceremonies, but many rites of social transformation, such as initiation into clubs or common-interest societies, have no immediate connection with biological changes. Ceremonies of religious transformation signal changes in religious status, and can involve lay people (as in the Jewish bar mitzvah; see below and p. 472) or priests (as in Christian ordination).
Puberty rites
'Coming of age' parties in Western societies celebrate the transition in time from child to adult. In tribal societies the rituals that mark the movement into adult status are sometimes called puberty rites, and mark a movement into a sexual world from a non-sexual one. Sometimes this transition is marked physically by ritual scarring or body mutilation.
Puberty rites amongst Australian Aborigines are highly complex and involve a symbolic re-enactment of death in order to achieve new life as an adult. Among the Dinka people of the southern Sudan, the passage from boyhood to manhood is marked by a ceremony in which boys of similar age undergo hardship together, including ritual feeding in 'fattening camps'. The abandonment of the activity of milking cows - which had marked their status as children and servers of men - symbolizes the boys' entry into manhood.
The Jewish ritual of bar mitzvah can be seen both as a puberty ritual and as a ceremony of religious transformation. Bar mitzvah transforms a boy into a full member of the Jewish male religious community. Similarly, Christian baptism and confirmation confer membership of a religious community.
Weddings and childbirth
Wedding ceremonies display separation, transition and incorporation. In Christian wedding ceremonies in Britain the relatives and friends of the bride and groom are physically separated; the bride is 'given away' by her father or senior male relative to the groom (separated from her family to be incorporated into a new family); the bride and groom leave the ceremony together (separate from both sets of relatives and friends as they form a new union); after the ceremony relatives and friends of the couple mingle together, symbolizing the restructuring of their relationships brought about by the marriage.
* THE FAMILY
* SOCIAL STRATIFICATION AND DIVISIONS
* RELIGIONS
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A:A;@
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Age Roles and Rites of Passage (page 2)
ftsTitle
A young Japanese girl attends a Shinto shrine on her Coming of Age Day.
Age Roles and Rites of Passage(2 of 3)
Pregnancy and childbirth are traditionally seen as dangerous and polluting, especially to men. Pregnant women are in a transitional phase between being one person and being two or more. Transitional phases are confusing because the people who inhabit them do not belong to the ordered categories of society - they are between them. Until quite recently it was common in Western societies for women who had given birth to be churched - ritually cleansed and received back into the community of the Christian Church.
* THE FAMILY
* SOCIAL STRATIFICATION AND DIVISIONS
* RELIGIONS
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ftsTitleOverride
Age Roles and Rites of Passage (page 3)
ftsTitle
The funeral pyre lit for Rajiv Gandhi. In all societies the passage from life to death is marked by ritual. For Hindus cremation is necessary to release the dead into the hereafter.
Age Roles and Rites of Passage(3 of 3)
Funeral rites
In most societies death is marked by elaborate ritual, generally of a religious nature. In traditional China, the dying were specially prepared for death, having their heads shaved and their bodies washed and placed in a sitting position to allow the soul to leave the body easily. In Catholic Christianity, the dying make a last confession of their sins to a priest, and receive absolution.
The actual disposal of the body displays varying degrees of complexity and religious significance in different societies. In ancient Egypt, the dead underwent a particularly intricate process of ritual embalming (mummification) to prepare them for a proper afterlife. In most societies, burial or cremation are the favored methods of disposing of the dead. However, the Parsis of India expose their corpses on 'towers of silence' to be devoured by crows, kites and vultures. This is to avoid polluting by burial or cremation the sacred divine creations of earth and fire.
In Western countries, despite a tendency for funerals to become less elaborate (simple cremation is increasingly preferred to burial), religious rites and customs surrounding death continue to be observed even though the beliefs that inspired them have been discarded or forgotten. In all societies funeral ceremonies mark the movement from life to death and help the bereaved adjust to the loss of a member of the community.
Other rites
The action of joining is stressed in other ceremonies including the many secular rites of passage. For instance, after the successful completion of their studies undergraduates become graduands (i.e. people who are about to graduate) and then graduates at degree-awarding ceremonies. The graduates are members of an academic community. Other significant social changes which do not involve initiation into organized social groups are attended by ritual. These include festivities marking retirement from work and various other award ceremonies.
Whatever their form and content, age roles and rites of passage are ways in which human beings try to structure and organize their relationships with one another. Rites of passage provide an ordered framework for individuals in which their rights and obligations are made clear to them in a public context.
* THE FAMILY
* SOCIAL STRATIFICATION AND DIVISIONS
* RELIGIONS
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The Family (page 1)
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The nuclear family, spanning two generations, is the characteristic family unit of developed industrial societies. Although the nuclear family is generally believed to allow greater mobility and individual freedom, it has also been blamed for increases in stress and tension, rising divorce rates and increases in delinquency.
"The Family (1 of 1)
A family is a group of people who are related to each other by blood (for instance a brother and sister), or by marriage (for instance a husband and his wife's sister). A wider group of related families is referred to as a kinship system. Family relationships are universal in the sense that everyone has blood relatives. However, the patterns of family, marriage and kinship relationships vary both geographically and historically.
Marriage is the bond that makes families possible. Typically it involves a legal agreement between a man and a woman to enter into a long-term socio-sexual relationship for the purposes of establishing a home, satisfying sexual needs and raising children. Marriage also creates rights and responsibilities, such as the economic support of spouse and offspring.
Marital relationships are usually formalized and solemnized by an elaborate ritual, known as a wedding ceremony, often with relatives of the couple in attendance. This can take place in a building officially recognized for holding such events, such as a church, temple or registry office. In Western societies, marriage is the final stage in a social process that involves dating, courtship and engagement. In many non-Western societies, for example in rural China, marital partners are selected by parents or other match makers rather than the couple them selves.
The expectations of what marriage should be and the laws governing who a person can marry and how many people a person can marry vary considerably from one society to another.
Although all known societies prohibit marriage and/or sexual relations between certain categories of relatives (incest), the categories themselves differ according to the culture in question. Exceptionally, in ancient Egypt brother-sister marriages were permitted within the family of the pharaoh in order to preserve the blood purity of the ruling dynasty. This is in marked contrast to the traditional family system of China, which prohibits marriage among a wide range of relatives, including distant cousins. The universally strong feelings that incest arouses have led to it becoming a taboo subject and practice.
Similarly, rules concerning the number of husbands or wives a person is allowed at one time vary between societies. Basically, there are two types of marriage: monogamy, where the individual has only one spouse at a time; and polygamy, where two or more spouses are recognized socially. Polygamy can involve husbands having two or more wives (polygyny) or wives having two or more husbands (polyandry). Polygyny is much more common than polyandry, and is particularly widespread in Islamic areas of Africa, where Muslim men are allowed to have up to four wives.
Polygamy is the most frequently found form of marriage, but monogamy, which is characteristic of Western societies, is spreading under the influence of Western culture. However, due to the increasingly high incidence of divorce and remarriage in Western societies, the practice of having many spouses consecutively (serial monogamy) is becoming more common.
Divorce rates vary considerably in different societies. For example, in countries where a marriage is essentially regarded as a civil contract, such as Britain, the USA and Russia, the divorce rate tends to be high. However, in countries dominated by the Catholic Church (which officially forbids divorce), such as Ireland, Spain, Italy and Mexico, the divorce rate is either not calculated or is very low. There are also many other ways of ending a marriage, including desertion, separation and annulment (legal cancellation). Consequently, divorce rates are an imperfect measure of marital breakdown.
Family and kinship
A person who marries leaves the family of origin to set up his or her own family of procreation. In the process he or she simultaneously becomes a member of a kinship system consisting of three families: the family of origin, the spouse's family of origin and the new family of procreation. A family comprising two generations only, namely parents and children, is known as a nuclear family. A family comprising three or more generations living together, namely parents, children and grandparents, is known as an extended family.
Typically, especially in Western societies, all the members of a nuclear family live in one household. In pre-industrial Western societies it was common for extended families consisting of parents, married and unmarried children and their spouses and offspring to live together under one roof. In the present day, extended family households are mainly found in non-Western cultures, for instance in Islamic societies. For most people the need for social and geographical mobility makes it impractical to share a household with a large number of relatives throughout their lives. Consequently, the typical family form in contemporary Western societies is not the isolated nuclear or extended type, but the modified extended family. This type of family is characterized by a nuclear family household that maintains social, economic and emotional ties with wider kin. Moreover, it is a family form that seems to be spreading with industrialization and urbanization.
Family functions
Notwithstanding the historical and regional variation in family types, the family performs the same range of functions to a greater or lesser extent in all societies: regulating sexual activity; ensuring economic survival; preparing young people for adulthood; and providing emotional security.
As societies have developed economically and have grown in size and complexity, the family has lost its monopoly regarding these social functions. For example, al though no society allows total sexual freedom, in Western societies there has been a tendency during the 20th century to relax the norms and rules governing sexual behavior. As a result, sex outside marriage is more common and more widely accepted now than in the immediate past. In the case of its economic and socialization functions, the family no longer operates alone in training young people to produce or supply goods and services. It does so indirectly in conjunction with schools, colleges, factories and offices. However, in Western societies, people still consume goods and services in a family context (for instance watching television and eating meals) and the majority of children are born within marriage, even if many are conceived outside it.
The historical decline of the social and economic functions of the family has tended to enhance the emotional function. In addition, this function has been heightened by the increasing importance attached to romantic love and marital satisfaction in Western societies. Hence, increasingly it is only within the family that an individual experiences close and enduring emotional ties. Outside the family - at school, work and at leisure - impersonal relationships have become the norm. It is in this important sense that the modern Western family home is often described as a haven.
Family disharmony and alternative families
The model of family life in which parents and children live together is generally considered to be the ideal, and has become the predominant pattern in Western societies. But even in this context there are problems and exceptions. The increasing emotional weight that the modern family has to bear, along with other factors such as inequalities within the family and the pressure to be economically successful, have caused certain family problems.
For example, a high rate of marital breakdown and a corresponding increase in single-parent families is apparent in many industrial societies. Also, the social and economic limitations of two-generation households, often revealed by the problem of caring for very young or very old family members, has been largely responsible for the persistence of ex tended family households.
Some people choose to reject conventional domestic arrangements and set up alternative household groups. Multi-family households such as communes or kibbutzes, frequently inspired by political or religious ideas, continue to exist in Western societies as a minority pattern.
The emotional intensity of family relationships, combined with other pressures on the modern family, is also thought to be responsible for the increasing prevalence of family conflict and violence. This includes child and wife abuse, and family murder. Some sociologists have attributed cases of mental illness and even suicide to the stresses of living in an excessively private family, especially in times of economic insecurity. According to this view, the modern family is not always an emotional haven - it can be a prison.
* AGE ROLES AND RITES OF PASSAGE
* SOCIAL STRATIFICATION AND DIVISIONS
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ftsTitleOverride
Social Stratification and Divisions (page 1)
ftsTitle
Car bomb explosion in a busy quarter of West Beirut. During the 1980s the city was the site of bitter fighting between various Christian and Muslim paramilitary factions.
Social Stratification and Divisions (1 of 2)
The hierarchical classification of social differences in terms of one or more dimensions of social inequality - such as wealth, power or prestige - is known as social stratification. The particular pattern that predominates in any one society tends to vary over time. There is some controversy as to whether social stratification is a universal feature of human societies. In preliterate or 'primitive' societies, membership of a clan (a group tracing its descent from a common male ancestor) or tribe (a distinctive ethnic and cultural group) is the main determinant of social inequality.
In addition to the hierarchical classification of social differences that divides societies into horizontal layers, it is also possible to divide societies vertically into blocks or pillars. Physical and cultural divisions based on factors such as sex/gender, race, ethnic identity, language and religion tend to cut across hierarchically ranked social groups, thereby fragmenting a society even further.
The caste system of social stratification
Caste is found in its most developed form in the Hindu-based system of social stratification in India. Its exact origins are obscure, although it is known to have existed for at least 2000 years. Social groups known as castes are separated from each other by religious rules of ritual purity and are ranked hierarchically on a scale that ranges from pure to impure. Thus each caste is 'purer' than the one below it. Contact between castes is prohibited on the grounds that lower castes could 'pollute' higher ones by coming too close.
Membership of caste is inherited and regarded by Hindus as divinely ordained. Caste members are required to marry within their caste. Traditionally, castes are associated with particular kinds of work, and this reinforces social segregation. Because caste membership is permanent and unchangeable, social mobility - the ability to move up (or down) the social ladder via marriage or individual effort - is impossible within a rigid caste system.
The main castes and their associated occupations are:
1. Brahmin (priests) 2. Kshatriya (warriors and landlords) 3. Vaishya (farmers and traders) 4. Sudra (rural and urban laborers)
Subsequently, another caste was added to the bottom of the classification: Harijans or 'untouchables', who undertake the most menial of tasks such as cleaning streets and toilets. In addition to the maincastes, several thousand subcastes known as jatis have been identified at the local village level. As in the wider caste system, jati membership is inherited and is therefore permanent and unchangeable.
Legal discrimination based on caste has been abolished in modern India and industrialization has created many new occupational groups. This has led to an increase in both individual and collective social mobility, which in turn has loosened some of the rigidities of the caste system.
The estate system
Social groups known as estates existed in Europe from the time of the Roman Empire to as late as 1789 in France. The estate system reached its zenith during the feudal era in Europe and there was also a similar system in Japan. Estates were created by laws that provided for a clear structure of rights and duties, privileges and obligations. Estates were also related to the prevailing economic division of labor: 'The nobility were ordained to defend all, the clergy to pray for all, and the commons to provide food for all.' An estate system was not an entirely closed system of social stratification. Social mobility was possible but not very widespread.
The main estates were: 1. The nobility 2. The clergy 3. The commons (also known as serfs and peasantry) The decline of the estate system in Europe coincided with the rise in the economic and political power of the urban bourgeoisie (merchants, manufacturers, financiers, etc.), a distinctive social group that developed within the estate system. Ac cording to some theories, this group played a major part in transforming and overthrowing the estate system of social stratification.
Class systems
Class systems of social stratification are characteristic of industrial capitalist societies. Classes are defined in economic rather than religious terms (as in caste systems), or political-legal terms (as in estate systems). There are no formal barriers to economic achievement in modern democratic societies, hence class systems tend to be less characterized by inherited factors and are correspondingly more open than other types of social stratification. In a class system, social mobility is the norm rather than the exception. Following the pioneering sociological theories of the Germans Karl Marx and Max Weber (1864-1920), there are two main models of class.
* AGE ROLES AND RITES OF PASSAGE
* THE FAMILY
* GOVERNMENT AND THE PEOPLE
* POLITICAL THEORIES OF THE LEFT
* POLITICAL THEORIES OF THE RIGHT
* CIVIL AND HUMAN RIGHTS
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Social Stratification and Divisions (page 2)
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A South African notice during Apartheid separates picnic sites for whites and non-whites (Blacks and Coloreds). The official social division of South Africa along racial lines - in terms of work, housing, education and leisure - was prevalent from 1948 to 1991.
Social Stratification and Divisions (2 of 2)
The Marxian model of class
In Marxist theory, a class is a group of people who have the same relationship to capital (property, such as land, factories or money, used for profit). Thus his classification is strictly economic. In this theory there are two main and two minor classes: 1. Bourgeoisie (large-scale owners of capital/employers) 2. Workers (non-owners of capital/employees) 1a Petty bourgeoisie (small-scale owners of capital / employers) 2b New middle class (managers and professional employees) The relationship between workers and employers, together with the conflict that it inevitably gives rise to, is the key point of Marx's theory of class. With industrialization, Marx expected the petty bourgeoisie to decline and the new middle class to expand, which has in fact happened. He also expected conflict between the two main classes to increase, resulting in the revolutionary overthrow of the dominant class, the owners, by the much larger subordinate class, the workers. This has not occurred in the most economically developed Western societies, but it has in several other societies, such as the former USSR, China and Cuba.
Weber's theory of class
In addition to those differences based on the individual's relationship to capital, Weber suggested that class is also determined by a person's relationship to the market. People have qualifications or skills for which there is a large or small demand depending on the situation. There is, for example, a higher demand for aircraft pilots than for neon-sign de signers during a war. Weber's theory of class tends to have more class categories than the Marxian one because it includes the owner ship/non-ownership of knowledge as well as that of capital.
The occupational status system
Weber also emphasized the concept of status, which he defined as social prestige. Social status is not unique to modern societies and can be influenced by many factors, including birth, education, occupation and lifestyle. As a result of the increased economic and social significance of work in modern societies, occupational status (also sometimes called occupational class), is often used as an alternative to class models of social stratification. The rank order of occupations can vary between societies and change over time. For example, since the 19th century, nursing has increased in skill and has therefore moved up the ranking, whereas clerical work has been deskilled and has consequently declined in status.
The main occupational status groups are: 1. Higher managerial and professional (e.g. doctor, lawyer) 2. Lower managerial and professional (e.g. teacher, nurse) 3. Skilled non-manual (e.g. insurance agent, secretary) 4. Skilled manual (e.g. carpenter, hairdresser) 5. Semi-skilled manual (e.g. bus driver, cashier) 6. Unskilled manual (e.g. cleaner, laborer) Market research companies in Britain, the USA and many other industrial capitalist societies use a comparable social grading of occupation: A Upper middle class (higher managerial and professional) B Middle class (lower managerial and professional) C1 Lower middle class (routine white-collar) C2 Skilled working class (manual) D Semi-skilled and unskilled working class (manual) E Residual (including those dependent upon the state) The terms middle class and working class are widely used by sociologists and market researchers to refer to non-manual and manual occupational groups respectively in the above classifications.
Other social divisions
Such social distinctions as gender, race, ethnic identity, language and religion have been widely used as the basis for discrimination, both official and unofficial, in many societies. In the 19th century, for example, in many countries women were not allowed to own property or to enter certain professional occupations. Under the apartheid system in 20th-century South Africa, political, economic and social discrimination was officially practised by the dominant White race in relation to the non-White races. When discrimination is legally abolished, it often persists in formally. Consequently, disadvantage in the competition for wealth, education, work, power and prestige continues to be experienced by certain groups, notably women and Blacks.
The term plural society refers to one that is divided into different racial, ethnic, linguistic, and/or religious groups. The degree of segmentation varies between societies and depends on several factors, such as the extent to which different groups have their own social institutions. Modern Dutch society is a particularly good example of advanced pluralism. In the Netherlands there are Catholic, Calvinist and non-religious political parties, trade unions, education organizations and broadcasting institutions. Many other societies are similarly divided, sometimes to such a degree that conflict between the major social groups occurs. Such tensions exist between Catholics and Protestants in Northern Ire land, Hindus and Sikhs in India, Greeks and Turks in Cyprus, and Muslims and Christians in Lebanon. The USA is highly pluralistic - as was the former USSR - in that it is made up of many large ethnic groupings, some of which coexist harmoniously, others less so.
Extreme tensions between groups with different cultural traditions can lead to political movements for separatism. Groups such as the Basques in Spain, and the French-speaking nationalists in Quebec in Canada have at times campaigned for their own separate state. Protestants in what is now Northern Ireland chose to stay outside the newly independent Irish Free State in 1922, agitating for the six counties where their communities are concentrated to remain a part of the United Kingdom. In India, extreme violence between Muslims and Hindus led to the partitioning of the country on independence in 1947 into two separate states - predominantly Hindu India, and predominantly Muslim Pakistan.
* AGE ROLES AND RITES OF PASSAGE
* THE FAMILY
* GOVERNMENT AND THE PEOPLE
* POLITICAL THEORIES OF THE LEFT
* POLITICAL THEORIES OF THE RIGHT
* CIVIL AND HUMAN RIGHTS
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Education (page 1)
ftsTitle
The main quadrangle of Queen's College, Oxford University. Founded in the 12th century, Oxford - along with Paris and Bologna - was one of Europe's first universities. Established as centers of advanced learning, there were more than 70 universities in Europe by the start of the 16th century.
Education (1 of 5)
Education is the process that allows each new generation to learn and sometimes challenge the knowledge, skills, values and behavior that have been developed by previous generations. It may be acquired formally, in schools, colleges, universities and workplaces, or informally, in the home, on the streets, or in places of leisure. Although some people educate themselves, most learn from others, either from teachers who are paid to teach them, or from parents, relatives, friends and workmates. Without education even advanced societies would sink back into a primitive state within a few years. We rely on education to ensure a supply of doctors, engineers, scientists and teachers, as well as to provide all citizens with a good foundation of basic knowledge and skills. In order to achieve this most countries have established a formal system of schooling. Children usually start attending school on a regular basis at the age of 5 or 6, although nursery and other forms of pre-school education may begin earlier.
* PERCEPTION
* THE POWER OF SPEECH
* LEARNING, CREATIVITY AND INTELLIGENCE
* MEDIEVAL AND RENAISSANCE CULTURE
* INDUSTRIAL SOCIETY
* HOW LANGUAGE WORKS
Outline
Encyclopedia
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Education (page 2)
ftsTitle
A ragged school in London in the 1850s. The ragged schools were charitable institutions that provided elementary schooling, industrial training and religious instruction for nearly 300 000 destitute children. The schools died out after the introduction of compulsory education in Britain in 1870.
Education (2 of 5)
The history of education
Accounts of many early civilizations contain descriptions of teaching. In ancient societies it was crucial to be able to hunt, cook, make weapons and utensils, and to know important rituals such as tribal dances and songs. Such skills and knowledge were passed on to children by their elders.
When societies became more advanced they needed teachers. Teachers were sometimes paid by the community out of taxes, or by parents. Some became well known. In the 5th century BC Kongfuzi wandered round China with his disciples, who in turn became teachers, and wrote down his philosophy of teaching in the Analects. One of his sayings was 'If out of the four corners of a subject I have dealt thoroughly with one corner and the pupils cannot find out the other three for themselves, then I do not explain any more.' In ancient India knowledge of the sacred texts was regarded as very important for teachers. They would live with and follow their own teachers or gurus until they had acquired enough wisdom to be teachers themselves. This was also the pattern adopted by Jesus and his disciples.
In Classical Greece and Rome, mastery of rhetoric (the skill of persuasion and communication in debate and public speaking) was highly valued. Athenian parents were willing to pay well-known teachers, such as Protagoras, as much as 10 000 drachmas to turn their sons into successful orators and men of affairs within three or four years. In Rome Cicero and Quintilian analyzed teaching methodology in considerable detail, and taught their pupils how to deliver a talk on a subject, or how to write in the style of different authors.
From about AD 1200 education gradually began to be made available to the ordinary people, not just the children of the wealthy. The Church played a big part in this: in many European countries the first schools for the poor were run by the local church, with the priest doubling up as teacher. As countries became industrialized there was political pressure to have a better educated workforce, and in the 19th century the first forms of official public education for all began to emerge.
During the 20th century the formal education of children in schools has spread throughout the world. In cities like New York the schools are huge and cater for thousands of pupils. In contrast, rural primary schools may only have a teaching staff of one and just a handful of children. Some schools simply teach their country's national curriculum (if it has one), while others may be founded on less conventional principles and adopt radically different teaching styles. Summerhill, founded in England in 1921 by the Scottish educationalist A.S. Neill (1883-1973), stresses freedom of choice for children, with optional attendance at lessons and a 'parliament' of teachers and pupils. Gordonstoun, founded in Scotland in 1935 by the German Kurt Hahn (1886-1974), emphasizes the benefits of a spartan outdoor regime and the achievement of ambitious intellectual and physical objectives. Hahn had established a similar school in Germany, but was forced to flee by the Nazis.
* PERCEPTION
* THE POWER OF SPEECH
* LEARNING, CREATIVITY AND INTELLIGENCE
* MEDIEVAL AND RENAISSANCE CULTURE
* INDUSTRIAL SOCIETY
* HOW LANGUAGE WORKS
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p260-3
ftsTitleOverride
Education (page 3)
ftsTitle
A French schoolboy uses his computer to help him complete his homework. Increasingly children in the Western world are studying on their own with the use of computers and multimedia software as educational tools.
Education (3 of 5)
Aims and methods
Most official documents on education would claim that the aim of schooling is to develop children's talents to the full. In reality, however, there is some variety in what different schools try to achieve.
The primary or elementary phase of education usually covers the period from the start of compulsory schooling up to the age of 11 or 12. This is a time when pupils receive a general education and a basic grounding in foundation subjects - especially in their own language and mathematics - often, though not always, from a single teacher. Many primary schools have been influenced by the philosophy of European thinkers on education, such as the German Friedrich Froebel (1782-1852) and the Italian Maria Montessori (1870-1952), who both stressed the importance of creative play, self-motivation and practical activity.
Certain countries, especially the less wealthy, do not provide any education beyond the primary level. Even in Britain it was not until the Education Act of 1944 that secondary education was made available to all children. In some countries, such as Germany, children undergo a selection procedure to determine which type of secondary school they should attend. In others, like the United States and most of the United Kingdom, all pupils in an area attend the same secondary or high school.
During the secondary phase pupils usually study a variety of subjects taught by specialist teachers. The curriculum in some countries consists entirely of traditional academic subjects such as mathematics, history, science and both their native and a foreign language. In other countries there may be a more vocational bias. Pupils in the USA, for example, may be able to have classes in such fields as journalism.
North Korean children visiting Kim il Sung's birthplace and being shown a model of his home village. Kim il Sung ruled North Korea from 1948 until his death in 1994. In school children were taught to respect their leader and Communism.
Education (4 of 5)
Further and higher education
Once the compulsory years of education are over, those who wish to continue learning can choose either to teach themselves, learn in their workplace, or attend an institution of further or higher education. Colleges of further education usually provide a wide range of courses for people wanting to study either part or full time. Most of these courses are below degree level, often leading to a professional or technical qualification, but such colleges may offer courses of general education or 'second chances' to those who were not able to obtain academic qualifications earlier in their careers.
Institutions of higher education include universities and polytechnics, which offer courses at first-degree level or beyond. Students either attend for their general education, or they may pursue a course related to a future career in, for example, medicine, engineering or law. Numbers attending degree-level courses may vary from a tiny percentage of the population in less wealthy countries, to one in three in Japan and parts of the USA.
Issues in education
There are few parts of the world where education is not a contentious issue. In countries with high unemployment it may be a passport to one of the few good jobs available, so parents will be anxious to secure the best opportunities for their children. Particular controversy attaches to the question of equal opportunities for all. Do children of all backgrounds get a fair deal? Do boys have a better education than girls? Are children from different religious, ethnic and social groups given the same opportunities as others? Should children attend selective schools according to their ability, or should all attend a common high school or comprehensive school? And within the school should they be grouped according to their ability - in streamed classes - or be taught in 'mixed ability' classes? All these questions are commonly asked.
In addition, the speed of technological change is such that education is having to change rapidly. The development of radio, television, the microcomputer and the interactive videodisc have already influenced the way people learn and will continue to do so. With a source of electrical power and a telephone link, even the remotest areas can have access to the greatest stores of information in the world.
Furthermore, the many rapid changes in society and the realization that human beings are capable of learning throughout their lives - even into old age - have combined to produce a demand for permanent educational opportunities. In the 21st century people will need to be able to learn and retrain throughout their lives, not just during the brief years of compulsory schooling.
* PERCEPTION
* THE POWER OF SPEECH
* LEARNING, CREATIVITY AND INTELLIGENCE
* MEDIEVAL AND RENAISSANCE CULTURE
* INDUSTRIAL SOCIETY
* HOW LANGUAGE WORKS
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p260-5
ftsTitleOverride
Education (page 5)
ftsTitle
Education (5 of 5)
EDUCATION AROUND THE WORLD
The organization of education varies considerably from one country to another. In some countries, such as France, there is a national system and curriculum controlled by the central government. Other countries favor local control, as in Germany, where the regional government in each Land (state) decides how schools are run. In the USA there is even more decentralization, with hundreds of school districts, some quite small, organizing local education.
The United Kingdom has a number of different systems. England and Wales have a mixture of local and national control, the curriculum, since 1988, being prescribed by the government but most day-to-day decisions about teachers, methods, books and buildings being decided at school level. In Scotland the Scottish Education Department exercises central control of the curriculum and examinations.
In many countries the state or the Church exerts a powerful influence on schooling. Before 1989-91, in Eastern Bloc countries such as the USSR and Bulgaria, the state determined that education was provided according to the principles laid down by Marx and Lenin. In some Islamic countries such as Saudi Arabia and Pakistan, education is dedicated to promoting the principles of the Muslim religion, and much time in schools is devoted to the teachings of the Qur'an (Koran). In Ireland the Roman Catholic Church controls the administration of the vast majority of the country's schools.
Though the predominant form of schooling in most countries is that provided by the state, many countries have a private sector. Most private schools charge fees, although some are free, and the number varies from none at all in countries where independent schools are not permitted, to parts of the USA where there may be more private than public provision.
* PERCEPTION
* THE POWER OF SPEECH
* LEARNING, CREATIVITY AND INTELLIGENCE
* MEDIEVAL AND RENAISSANCE CULTURE
* INDUSTRIAL SOCIETY
* HOW LANGUAGE WORKS
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School children in Rwanda
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p262-1
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Deviance, Crime and Law Enforcement (page 1)
ftsTitle
The Fleet prison in London - described in several of Charles Dickens's novels - served mainly as a debtors' prison until it was demolished in 1848. The imprisonment of people until they could pay their debts was widespread until the second half of the 19th century.
Deviance, Crime and Law Enforcement (1 of 3)
Deviants are people who do not conform with the social, moral or legal rules of a society, although the term is most often used to refer to those who actually break the criminal law. As societies evolve and become more complex, views on what constitutes deviance and crime may change.
Although the central core of criminal wrongdoing - offenses such as murder, theft and assault - has remained more or less unchanged over the centuries and from country to country, other behavior may be regarded as criminal at one time or place but not at another. In Britain, for instance, suicide was a crime until 1961 and eavesdropping until 1967, and homosexual behavior was legalized in some situations in the same year.
On the other hand, many new crimes have been created. Insider dealing - the unfair use of information about stocks and shares to make a personal profit - was made a crime in several countries in the 1980s, and many countries are considering making computer 'hacking' a crime. In South Africa, the apartheid system, which segregates people according to their skin color, is enforced by criminal law. In countries with a strict system of Islamic law, it is a criminal offense to commit adultery, or to drink alcohol.
Generally crimes can be classified in four broad groups: firstly there are crimes against the person, such as murder, manslaughter, assault and sexual offenses; secondly crimes against property, such as theft, burglary and criminal damage; thirdly crimes against public order, such as riot, affray and incitement to racial hatred; and fourthly crimes against the state, such as treason and sedition. Some laws are designed to protect health, such as quarantine laws and laws against the possession and use of dangerous drugs, or to protect people's feelings and beliefs, such as the laws of libel and blasphemy.
London's Bishopgate was seriously damaged in 1992 by a terrorist bomb thought have been planted by the IRA. The perpetrators of politically motivated terrorist acts are regarded as
violent criminals by many in the international community, but are seen by their supporters as freedom fighters in a just cause.
Deviance, Crime and Law Enforcement (2 of 3)
Crimes and the state
The notion that the criminal law always enforces morality is a mistaken one. While the criminal law can be used to enforce the Ten Commandments, for example, it can also be used to bolster the most repressive political regimes, such as Nazi Germany. For the society that has made the law, crimes are wrongs committed not just against an individual victim, but also against society as a whole. Thus prosecutions are almost always brought by the state and only rarely by individual citizens. In most countries the prosecution must prove an accused person's guilt beyond reasonable doubt.
For all serious crimes, the prosecution must prove that the accused committed the wrongful act, such as killing the victim, and that this was done with a guilty mind - that is to say on purpose rather than by accident. Even if the prosecution can prove these elements of the crime, the accused person may be able to rely on a defense - such as insanity or duress - to show the court that in the circumstances he or she should not be found guilty after all. However, if pleading insanity the accused may be detained in a mental institution.
Crime rates
Many people think that crime is on the increase, but it is difficult to be certain of this. Official crime statistics generally record only those offenses that are reported to the police and recorded by them. An increase from one year to another in, say, the number of thefts recorded in the statistics might not reflect a real increase in that crime, but only an increase in the number of thefts reported, or be caused by changes in police recording practices.
There is also the problem of the extent of unrecorded crime, which does not appear in these figures at all. The only way to measure the 'dark figure' of unrecorded crime is to conduct surveys, asking people for details of cases where they have been crime victims but have not reported the matter to the police. A survey like this has been carried out regularly in Britain by the Home Office since 1983. It shows that there are twice as many burglaries, 5 times as many serious assaults and 13 times as much criminal damage as the official statistics show.
* THE LAW: CIVIL AND CRIMINAL
* GOVERNMENT AND THE PEOPLE
* CIVIL AND HUMAN RIGHTS
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Deviance, Crime and Law Enforcement (page 3)
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Police riot squad in Amsterdam. The increasing use of armed and armored police in inner-city areas has caused some disquiet. While some favor a strong police presence in certain situations, such as large demonstrations, others see their presence as an over-reaction and as provocative.
The police
The police have the job of investigating and detecting crime. In England and Wales their powers to arrest and question suspects and search for evidence are set out in various Acts of Parliament, notably the Police and Criminal Evidence Act of 1984. One of the first organized police forces was created in Dublin in 1786, though the office of constable - unpaid, locally appointed and answerable to justices of the peace - had existed for hundreds of years before that.
The Metropolitan Police force was established in London in 1829 and local forces were set up elsewhere in Britain during the 1830s. These early policemen were known as 'Bow Street Runners' and later as 'Peelers', after Sir Robert Peel, the statesman who set up the force.
The British police are unusual in the world today in maintaining the tradition of not routinely carrying firearms. Some European police forces, such as those in France and Italy, are highly centralized and paramilitary in nature. In the USA, federal, state and local police forces operate independently. Police forces in most countries have developed special squads of officers to deal with riots, and specially trained officers to detect complex crimes, such as fraud.
Punishment
After a person is convicted of an offense by a criminal court, the court proceeds to sentence him or her. Judges often have a wide discretion over which sentence to impose. Under many legal systems their decision is subject to an appeal by the offender, if he or she thinks the sentence is too severe, and conversely by the prosecution if they think the sentence is too lenient.
Capital punishment (the death penalty) was once widely used in Britain, for offenses as diverse as defacing the coinage and sheep stealing. It was effectively abolished in 1965, although theoretically it can still be imposed for a crime of treason. The death penalty still exists in other countries, such as China, the USA and South Africa. A death sentence is often not carried out immediately, and prisoners on 'Death Row' may face months or years of uncertainty until they know whether an appeal against their sentence will be successful, or whether the government will commute their sentence to one of imprisonment.
Imprisonment was not originally de signed as a punishment. Prisons were places used to hold people securely until they paid their debts, were executed, or transported overseas. In many countries imprisonment is now the most severe sentence a court can impose. It may be for a fixed term stated by the judge, or for life. In either case the actual period served may be reduced, sometimes quite consider ably, by the prisoner's good behavior and a decision by the authorities to release a prisoner early, under supervision. Prison sentences, and the equivalent sentence of detention in a youth-offender institution for those under 21, are used in about half the cases sentenced in the British Crown Courts.
Courts can opt for non-custodial sentences as alternatives to prison. Prison sentences can be suspended, which means that the offender will only serve the sentence if he or she commits a further offense within a specified time. In Britain fines are the most frequently imposed non-custodial sentence, though in the USA they are seldom used. In Germany and Sweden a system exists where-by offenders are fined a percentage of their income, rather than being fined a fixed amount for the crime committed.
Community service - introduced first in Britain in 1972 - and in many countries since - requires the offender to do up to 240 hours of unpaid work in the community to repay his or her debt to society. This may be hard physical labor, such as clearing derelict land, or social work alongside professional carers and volunteers with the disadvantaged or handicapped. A probation order places the offender under the supervision of a probation officer for a period of up to three years. In the USA some offenders on probation are required to wear an electronic anklet or tag, so that the probation officer can check their whereabouts by radio monitoring.
In many cases where the offender can afford to pay, he or she will be required by the criminal court to pay money in compensation to the victim of the crime. Alternatively, a victim who has suffered physical injury may be able to claim some compensation from the state. The first scheme of this type started in New Zealand in 1960 and most countries now have one.
THE FORENSIC LABORATORY
The methods by which crimes are investigated have become increasingly sophisticated during the 20th century. The modern forensic laboratory is equipped with a formidable array of scientific instruments and facilities, and employs a number of chemical, photographic and other techniques to analyze and identify physical evidence.
Modern methods of fingerprinting are based on techniques established in the late 19th century and officially introduced by the London Metropolitan Police in 1901. Fingerprinting is particularly useful as a means of identifying suspects since no two people have the same pattern of ridges on their fingers and thumbs. Dusting techniques have made the revelation and identification of 'invisible' fingerprints a commonplace, and chemical tests have been devised that can detect the presence of fingerprints that are several years old.
The use of chemical tests is crucial in the examination of blood, semen, urine and other body fluids. Once blood has been detected, categorization according to blood group is possible, as well as an estimate of the age of the bloodstains. A recent advance in forensic investigation is the technique of genetic fingerprinting, which allows exact identification of a suspect by an examination of DNA molecules in body fluids and tissues.
Chemical tests also enable scientists to identify specific drugs or poisons. Toxicological analysis by a forensic laboratory may be necessary to establish whether a death was accidental, murder or suicide.
Sophisticated photographic techniques, particularly infrared and ultraviolet photography, allow the detection of invisible writing, alterations to documents, and stains in clothing and fabric.
Photomicrography (photographing objects through a microscope) is of particular use to ballistics (firearms) experts. Minute imperfections on the inside of a gun barrel leave tiny scratches on a bullet fired from it - every gun leaves a different pattern of scratches. Photomicrography can be used to compare such markings on a test bullet fired from a suspect firearm with those on a bullet found at the scene of a crime, and positive identification can then be made.
The distance from which a weapon was fired can be determined from the shape and size of a bullet hole or wound and the extent of the burnt area around it. Tests also exist to detect traces of chemicals left by cartridge primers on the hands and clothing and thereby establish whether a suspect has recently fired a gun.
* THE LAW: CIVIL AND CRIMINAL
* GOVERNMENT AND THE PEOPLE
* CIVIL AND HUMAN RIGHTS
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The Law: Criminal and Civil (page 1)
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Nazi leaders in the dock during the war crimes trials held in Nuremburg in 1945 and 1946. Nazi atrocities, such as mass extermination and transportation, were defined not only as war crimes, but as crimes against humanity. Twelve Nazi leaders were sentenced to hang in the trials, which established the precedent that war crimes are the responsibility of the individual, as well as of the state.
The Law: Civil and Criminal (1 of 3)
At the root of all systems of law is the notion of justice.
Justice, associated with the principles of fairness and impartiality, is often personified as a blindfolded figure holding a pair of scales, to symbolize the impartiality of the law. It is said that justice must be done and be seen to be done.
What happens in court is reported by the press, and courts often have a public gallery where anyone can sit and watch the law in action. In the USA it is quite common for important cases to be televised, but this is not permitted in Britain. Judges should be neutral and have no personal interest in the outcome of the case. No person should act as both prosecutor and judge. With a few exceptions, anyone can be called as a witness, and be required to give evidence.
Ancient legal systems, particularly those of Greece and Rome, still influence the modern law. Around the world, there are now four distinct 'schools' of law. The first is based on Roman law and is the chief influence on the legal systems of many Western European countries. A characteristic of Roman law systems is the writing down of laws in the form of general codes. Perhaps the most famous of these is the French Napoleonic code. The second type is based on common law, and is found in Britain and in those countries - such as the USA and the countries of the Commonwealth - whose legal systems are modeled on the British system. The third type is socialist law, strongly influenced by Marxism-Leninism, and found in Eastern Europe and some Asian countries. Fourthly, Muslim law is based on the Qur'an (Koran).
The appeal court in Paris. The 35 appeal courts in France are empowered to pass judgment on decisions pronounced by magistrate's courts and high courts, as well as specialized courts such as industrial tribunals and commercial courts. Most judicial systems have a hierarchy of courts allowing for a decision in a lower court to be reversed on appeal to a higher court.
The Law: Civil and Criminal (2 of 3)
The sources of the law
The first and most important source of the law is statute law. In Britain a statute is an Act of Parliament passed by both Houses of Parliament; similarly, in other countries, laws are passed by a majority in the representative assembly. European Community laws are having an important effect in standardizing the laws of all countries that are members of the EC. In the USA statutes may apply at either state or federal level, but the most important statute is the US Constitution itself. Sometimes the wording of a statute or code may be unclear, in which case a judge must give a ruling on the meaning of the new law. This process is called statutory interpretation. In Roman-law systems, the main task of the judge is to apply the codes.
The second source of the law is previous court decisions. The doctrine of precedent, which is found in all legal systems, says that the judge must generally follow an earlier decision of any higher court on the same point of law that he is considering. A litigant who wants to challenge that law must take his or her case on appeal to a court high enough to overturn the earlier decision. The system of precedent means that a legal system must have detailed accounts of previous cases, known as law reports.
Common-law systems are adversarial, which means that lawyers on each side put opposing arguments to the judge, who then decides which argument wins. The role of the judge is rather like an umpire - he or she ensures fair play and then announces the result. In some kinds of cases, the jury has the role of deciding the result.
A quite different system, the inquisitorial one, operates in Roman-law, socialist and Islamic systems. Here, the judge or magistrate actively investigates the case and questions the witnesses in court before reaching his or her decision.
Civil law
Civil law governs rights and duties between citizens. The law of contract deals with important business matters such as trade, credit and insurance, but also governs more commonplace agreements (for example a bus ticket is a contract between the passenger and the bus company).
The law of tort, or delict, governs liability following breach of a duty of care between citizens, such as a case in which a person is injured by another's negligent driving, or has property damaged by animals that have escaped from a neighbor's farm, or where a person's reputation is damaged by defamatory statements in a published work.
A famous tort case in Britain is Donoghue versus Stevenson in 1932, in which a woman obtained compensation from the manufacturers of a bottle of ginger beer. She had fallen ill after drinking the ginger beer, which, because of the manufacturer's negligence, contained the decomposed remains of a snail.
In civil cases the person injured (known in England and Wales as the plaintiff) will use the law to bring an action against the defendant in a civil court, probably seeking the remedy of damages, which is a payment of compensation. Another civil remedy is an injunction. This might be used where one neighbor sues another to stop them having noisy parties or making unpleasant smells on their land. In such cases the plaintiff does not want compensation; the court is being asked to order the offending behavior to be stopped.
Civil law covers other important areas of life, such as the purchase of a house, the disposal of property where a marriage ends in divorce, and the care and custody of the children of that marriage.
* DEVIANCE, CRIME AND LAW ENFORCEMENT
* GOVERNMENT AND THE PEOPLE
* CIVIL AND HUMAN RIGHTS
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p264-3
The Law: Civil and Criminal (3 of 3)
Criminal law
Criminal law deals with the situation where the accused person is said to have broken a law that has caused an injury not just to another individual, but also to the state. This law covers offenses that range from murder, manslaughter, assault and sexual offenses, to offenses against property such as theft, burglary and criminal damage. The purpose of the criminal law is quite different from that of the civil law. The state prosecutes accused persons in a criminal court not in order to obtain compensation, but to punish them for what they have done.
In common-law systems, serious criminal law cases are dealt with by a judge and jury, but most cases can be decided by magistrates, or justices of the peace, who are not lawyers and are unpaid. With the exception of some libel cases, a jury is never used in a civil case in Britain, and juries are hardly ever used in Roman-law, socialist or Islamic legal systems. In England and Wales a jury is composed of 12 impartial people, aged between 18 and 70. At the end of the case they decide if the accused is guilty or not guilty. In most countries that have a jury system a unanimous verdict is needed, but in England and Wales a majority verdict, with up to two dissenters, is allowed. If the jury cannot agree, there may be a retrial. In Scotland, juries consist of 15 people, and a bare majority verdict of 8:7 is acceptable.
The accused's guilt in a criminal case must be proved by the prosecution beyond reasonable doubt. The rules governing what evidence can be heard in court are complex and vary between different legal systems. In Britain the accused's previous convictions cannot be discussed, nor can hearsay evidence, where one person testifies as to what another person told him. Opinion evidence is not allowed, unless it is the opinion of an expert, such as a forensic scientist or handwriting expert.
Lawyers
In Britain the legal profession is divided into two groups. Solicitors have a general knowledge of most of the law, and it is a solicitor to whom a client would go with a legal problem. In many cases the solicitor is able to deal with the matter alone. If, however, the problem involves a complex issue in a specialized area of law, or there is likely to be a case in a higher court, the solicitor briefs a barrister.
Barristers (called advocates in Scotland) specialize in a particular area of the law. In France there is a similar distinction, between the avouu (solicitor) and the avocat (barrister). In most countries, one lawyer does both jobs. In the USSR lawyers are regarded as the servants of the state, and are appointed to cases by a governing body, the Prokuratura, rather than being chosen by the person in need of a lawyer. In many countries with common-law or Roman-law systems, lawyers are paid a fee whether the case is won or lost. In damages cases in the USA a system of contingency fees is sometimes applied, whereby all parties agree that the lawyer will only be paid if the case is won.
In Britain judges are almost always appointed from the ranks of senior barristers, though it is also possible for solicitors to become judges. In due course a judge may be promoted to sit in the appeal courts: these are the Court of Appeal, which is split into Civil and Criminal Divisions, and the House of Lords. Judges, once appointed, hold office until their retirement, unless they resign or are removed from office by a complex procedure involving resolution by both Houses of Parliament.
In many other European countries judges are not appointed from the ranks of barristers. In Switzerland and France, for instance, judges have a special legal training, and are appointed for life. US Federal judges, including those in the Supreme Court, are appointed by the President, subject to confirmation by the Senate. State judges are, however, elected to their jobs.
In the Soviet Union, in theory, any citizen can be elected a judge, but the laws in Bulgaria, Hungary and Yugoslavia require that judges have some legal training. In Argentina, Brazil and Chile, Supreme Court judges are appointed for life. Elsewhere all judges are appointed for fixed terms varying from 3 to 10 years.
It can be very expensive to bring a legal case, especially one that reaches the higher courts. Many civil cases can, however, be resolved between the lawyers of the two parties without going to court. For those people who cannot afford to pay, there are systems of legal advice and legal aid available in most countries to help with some, or all, of a person's legal expenses.
THE COURTS OF ENGLAND AND WALES
The arrows indicate where a right of appeal lies from one court to another. The more serious criminal cases start off in the Crown Court and more complicated civil cases in the High Court.
Three judges sit in the Court of Appeal. They are known as Lords Justices of Appeal. Five judges sit in the House of Lords. They are known as Lords of Appeal in Ordinary, or the Law Lords.
The head of the Civil Division of the Court of Appeal is the Master of the Rolls. This title derives from his historical custodianship of the court record, or rolls. The head of the Criminal Division of the Court of Appeal is the Lord Chief Justice. The head of the House of Lords is the Lord Chancellor. The Lord Chancellor is the only judge who is also a member of the Government.
* DEVIANCE, CRIME AND LAW ENFORCEMENT
* GOVERNMENT AND THE PEOPLE
* CIVIL AND HUMAN RIGHTS
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The Law: Criminal and Civil (page 3)
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p266-1
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Government and the People (page 1)
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Nelson Mandela casts his vote in the historic first multi-racial elections in South Africa in 1994. South Africa has adopted a presidential quasi-federal system of government.
Government and the People (1 of 2)
The word 'government' comes from the Latin word gubernator, meaning helmsman. Well before Roman times, people living in early societies started to develop special institutions to look after their common well-being. Government is needed to make decisions on matters affecting the people of a state as a whole. Effective government means the ability to arrive at a balance between conflicting pressures, and to steer the state towards shared community goals.
The original purposes of government were to protect a people from attack from external aggressors, and to provide them with a body of laws to bring order to their everyday lives. Since the 19th century, the tasks of government have grown to cover education, health and pensions (the 'welfare state'). Some people think that modern governments take on too wide a range of tasks.
The ancient Athenian city-state is often viewed as the basic model of democracy. It was certainly more democratic than anything that had come before it; but, by modern standards, Athenian democracy was limited by the inferior status of women, the reliance on slavery, and an unequal sharing of power among male citizens. The Roman republican system saw a further development of popular control of government, in particular in the acceptance of the idea that sovereignty rests in the people as a whole rather than in one small group.
In the medieval period, the task of government was effectively divided between the state and the Church, with each claiming their own set of rights. The medieval view was that the authority of one person to rule over another came from God - the so-called 'divine right of kings'. The Italian political theorist Niccol
Machiavelli (1469-1527) broke away from accepted ideas towards a secular view of the state. He favored a popular form of government that he saw as having existed in the Roman Republic.
The social contract
The emergence of the idea of the social contract in the 16th century reintroduced the notion that government rests on the consent of the people. The English political philosopher Thomas Hobbes (1588-1679) described the chaos in which he believed people lived when they did not have a proper government. He claims in his most important treatise, Leviathan (1651), that the life of man in his natural, ungoverned state is 'solitary, poor, nasty, brutish and short'. Hobbes's doctrine is that men can only live together in peace if they agree to obey an absolute sovereign, and this agreement Hobbes called 'the social contract'. Hobbes's concern about what happened when government broke down, as in the English Civil War during his lifetime, led him to suggest that considerable power should be placed in the hands of the sovereign.
In his two Treatises of Government (1690),the English philosopher John Locke (1632-1704; see also p. 418) also makes use of the idea of a social contract. However, Locke opposed absolutism, and saw the free consent of the governed as the basis of legitimate government. Obedience depends on governments ruling for the good of the governed, who have the right to rebel if they are oppressed. This idea would appear quite acceptable today, but was seen as radical at the time - being adopted, for example, by the American Revolutionaries of 1776.
The French philosopher Jean-Jacques Rousseau (1712-1778; see also pp. 419 and 630-1) faced the question that had troubled all social-contract theorists since the decline of the idea of a God-given authority. If laws are made by citizens, why should other citizens obey them? Rousseau made it clear that citizens must exist within a system of law, but citizens can only be bound by those laws if they take part in making them. In his Social Contract (1762), Rousseau offers an account of the ideal democracy based on popular sovereignty. The exercise of power, Rousseau argues, should accord with the 'general will' and have the consent of all the people.
Types and tasks of government
By developing the idea of separation of powers, the French enlightenment philosopher Montesquieu (1689-1755; see also p. 418) pointed the way to the modern view of the three branches of government. The legislature is responsible for the making and amending of laws; the executive is responsible for carrying out laws and the judiciary is responsible for the administering of justice. This division of governmental powers provides a basis for popular control. For example, a supreme court (the highest court of the judiciary) can rule whether the government (executive) has broken the law. In the United States, the constitution is based on a system of 'checks and balances' between the different branches of government.
Liberal or western democracies take a number of forms, but have in common the regular election of governments by free choice between competing parties. Countries such as France and the USA have presidential systems in which executive power is vested in an elected president. A president's power is usually limited to some extent by the legislative assembly, which is responsible for the day-to-day running of the government.
In a parliamentary system, a Prime Minister - usually the leader of the majority party in the legislative assembly - heads the executive branch of government. In a constitutional monarchy, such as Britain, the prime minister serves under a sovereign who has only ceremonial powers.
Communist states, such as the Soviet Union until 1990-91, depended on one-party rule by the Communist Party. In 1989-91, the power of the Communist Party was eroded in the countries of Eastern Europe, which moved towards democratic political systems. Many countries, particularly in the Third World, are governed by the military. However, since the 1970s, there has been a trend for military regimes to be replaced by democracies, first in southern Europe, later in Latin America and most recently in Africa .
A federal system, as in Germany, divides power between central government and a number of regional governments. A unitary system concentrates executive authority in the hands of central government.
* SOCIAL STRATIFICATION AND DIVISIONS
* POLITICAL THEORIES OF THE LEFT
* POLITICAL THEORIES OF THE RIGHT
* THE ENLIGHTENMENT
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Government and the People (page 2)
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Nelson Mandela is sworn in as South Africa's first black president.
Government and the People (2 of 2)
Political participation
Modern democracy has developed as a system in which the people are able to take part in government decision making. The most basic form of political participation is voting to elect public officials. This may be direct or indirect. In the system of indirect election in the United States, the people choose a body of electors - an electoral college - which then elects a president. Some countries have a first-past-the-post electoral system in which the candidate with the most votes in a constituency (i.e. a particular area) is elected. France uses a two-stage system, while many other European countries use a variety of systems of proportional representation in tended to ensure that parties are represented in parliament in relation to the number of votes they receive from the electorate as a whole. In Australia and Belgium it is illegal not to vote in a general election.
Some countries, such as Switzerland, make extensive use of referenda to allow the electorate to decide directly on current issues. Referenda have been used in Britain on the issues of membership of the European Community and devolution for Scotland and Wales.
Citizens may become more directly involved in politics. They may join a political party, or form or join a pressure group campaigning on a single issue. They may decide to stand for public office themselves. Even in the freest society, political participation is dependent to a certain extent on social and economic factors that give some individuals and groups more power and influence than others.
The administration
The German sociologist Max Weber saw bureaucracy as a more efficient form of administration than, for example, the earlier system based on the members of a monarch's court. However, the very efficiency of bureaucracy, and the permanent status of most civil servants, raises serious questions about the accountability of bureaucrats to the people.
The civil service, particularly its senior members, is important both in terms of offering advice on policy, and putting policies into operation. The central position of bureaucracy in modern government has created a need for new ways of dealing with complaints from citizens about unfair treatment. In Britain, the ombudsman is an official who investigates claims of maladministration against national and local government.
Reforms such as this can help to deal with complaints from individual citizens, but they do not solve the more general problem of the accountability of bureaucrats. The power of the bureaucracy is something that Montesquieu did not anticipate when writing about the separation of powers, and poses the most serious problem for popular control.
GOVERNMENT AND PEOPLE IN BRITAIN
The United Kingdom uses a 'first-past-the-post' system for electing Members of Parliament. Each constituency elects one MP, the person gaining the most votes being elected. In a contest between four parties, it would be possible for an MP to be elected with less than a third of the total vote. At national level, it is possible for the party that obtains the largest number of votes not to win the election, as happened in 1951 when the Labor Government lost office to the Conservatives.
The first-past-the-post system favors parties that appeal to a particular social class (such as the Conservative and Labor parties) or to a region (such as the Nationalist parties in Wales and Scotland). Parties that have an appeal across the electorate gain fewer seats.
The British system tends to produce majority governments that do not have to rely on coalition partners to govern. Systems of proportional representation, such as those of Germany and Italy, can give a lot of influence to very small parties whose sup- port is needed by larger parties to enable them to form a government .
The monarch is head of the United Kingdom, although the crown is seen as a symbol above and beyond the monarch. Legislative power is vested in parliament, with the royal assent needed for a bill to become law. The Commons is elected for a term of not more than five years. Parliament is dissolved by the monarch on the advice of the prime minister. After a general election, the monarch appoints the head of the winning party as the new prime minister, although if no one party had a working majority, the monarch would have to seek advice on who to ask first to try and form a government.
Britain operates a system of cabinet government in which ministers in charge of departments are drawn from the two Houses of Parliament, largely from the Commons (lower house) rather than the Lords (upper house). If the government loses a vote of confidence in the House of Commons, even by only one vote, as happened to the Labor Party in 1979, it has to resign.
Because modern governments have so much to do, the Cabinet increasingly works through a system of committees. Some are permanent committees dealing with tasks such as managing the economy, while others are formed to deal with particular problems. The Cabinet as a whole remains crucial in shaping the general policy of the Government, although the Prime Minister is clearly its most important single member.
Much of the work of governing Britain is done by local government. Local authorities (county councils and district councils in England and Wales, regional and district councils in Scotland) are responsible for services such as education, social services, local authority housing, and the fire brigade. There has been some loss of tasks by local government in the 1980s, with some metropolitan authorities (notably the Greater London Council) being abolished and schools being allowed to opt for direct funding by central government.
* SOCIAL STRATIFICATION AND DIVISIONS
* POLITICAL THEORIES OF THE LEFT
* POLITICAL THEORIES OF THE RIGHT
* THE ENLIGHTENMENT
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Nelson Mandela is sworn in
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p268-1
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Political Theories of the Left (page 1)
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Lenin (Vladimir Ilyich Ulyanov) addressing a crowd. Lenin took the teachings of Karl Marx and implemented them in a Communist worker's state: The Soviet Union (Russia).
Political Theories of the Left (1 of 3)
In politics the Left is the polar opposite of the Right. The metaphor of left, right and center originated in the French Revolution of 1789. In the French Estates General the aristocracy sat on the King's right, whereas the commoners (or third estate') sat on his left. Subsequently, in French and other European assemblies, radical democrats, radical liberals and socialists sat on the left of the President's or Speaker's chair. The French revolutionary commitment to liberty, equality and fraternity' remains the simplest way to understand the numerous political theories of the Left, as these core values lie at the center of the Left's arguments.
The tensions between liberty, equality and fraternity help explain much of the internal debate and fragmentation within the Left. However, all these values and tensions are subsumed within a broad philosophical commitment to political rationalism'.
Liberty
The Left, especially its liberal and democratic components such as the socialist, labor and social democratic parties of Western Europe, are distinguished by their fundamental commitment to democracy, understood as government based on popular consent and popular participation in the formation and exercise of political authority. The Left hold that human freedom requires political freedom - freedom to choose the government and to dissent from it - and civil rights of assembly, expression and participation, which make the realization of such freedom effective.
The Left have always been divided, however, over how and to what extent to increase democracy. The liberal and social democratic Left embrace the institutions of representative government (the periodic election of parliaments and/or presidents under universal suffrage) and the rule of law (the regulation of all social activity by constitutional and other legislation). They have sought more rarely to extend democracy to non-governmental organizations. In contrast, socialists and Communists have emphasized the merits of workers' control', industrial democracy' (the control of an organization by those who work in it), economic democracy' or, more generally, participatory democracy'. They have believed in the merits of politicizing such formally neutral institutions as state bureaucracies, the police and the judiciary. The ultra-Left, who resemble anarchists (advocates of the abolition of formal government) in their political beliefs, would entrust ultimate authority to mass meetings of active people rather than to laws or constitutions which give power to small groups.
In part these differences reflect conflict within the Left over the relative importance of liberty and equality. The more extreme Left believe that greater equality requires the extending of democracy to all institutions, whereas others believe that too much democratization' threatens other values of the Left, such as liberty, and may not necessarily produce democratic institutions.
The Left have also been divided over how to achieve their commitment to liberty. Reformists, i.e. liberals, social democrats and democratic socialists, believe that the Left should work within the institutions of liberal democracy to extend support for their values. They usually organize themselves in mass socialist, social democratic or labor parties for these purposes. By contrast revolutionaries, especially those committed to the political theories of Communism or Marxist-Leninism, believe that liberal democracy is a sham: a facade for bourgeois' or capitalist' democracy. They believe that true democracy', i.e. proletarian or working-class democracy, can be achieved only through insurrectionary means. They have usually organized themselves in elite parties to achieve these purposes, using the Russian Bolsheviks as their model. However, the Marxist-Leninist or Communist commitment to democracy has been fundamentally compromised since the Russian Revolution of 1917. It has been historically associated with the dictatorship of the proletariat', which in practice has meant the dictatorship of the Communist Party. Such parties have monopolized state power in the Soviet Union and Eastern Europe (until 1989), China, Indochina and Cuba.
All components of the Left also believe in positive' as opposed to negative' freedom, i.e. the importance of people being free to achieve their objectives and realize their talents. Mere freedom from government, or negative' liberty, is considered insufficient to build a good society.
Equality
The Left are perhaps best known for their commitment to equality', considered indispensable to the creation of a classless society'. First, they are opposed to hereditary privilege on the grounds that such privilege has nothing to do with merit. Second, the Left believe that equality of opportunity' requires government action to ensure that equality is realized in meaningful, practical terms. Thus a redistributive welfare state, based upon progressive taxation of income and wealth, which ensures equality of access to such basic social goods as education, health care and insurance, is considered vital to enable people to have a fair chance of benefiting from equality of opportunity. Third, the Left believe that inequalities between people in income, wealth or resources have to be justified by the benefits such inequalities generate for the rest of society. This requirement sets limits to differences in income and wealth which can be accepted within the principles of social justice. Here the Left differ from those who believe that equality of opportunity means merely equality of opportunity to achieve unequal rewards.
Fourth, the Left have progressively extended the principle that all adults should be treated as meriting equal respect and possessing equal rights before the law, because of their equal humanity. Thus they have been hostile to imperialism - the conquest and coercive domination of some ethnic groups by others; to racism - the belief that some races are generally superior to others; and to sexism - the belief that men are generally superior to women.
Finally, and most controversially, the Left have been associated with an egalitarian philosophy which opposes the free market and private property rights. Thus many early socialists and Marxist-Leninists favored the replacement of the free market by a planned economy, and state or social ownership as opposed to private ownership of the means of production, distribution and exchange. They argued that such policies were necessary to control the anarchy and inequalities of capitalist markets, to abolish class privileges, and to create the genuine solidarity which they believed should characterize a socialist society. This state socialist' tradition has been the dominant one amongst the Left, especially the Marxist Left, and was applied in the Soviet Union from the late 1920s, and after 1945 in places as diverse as Eastern Europe, China, Indochina and Cuba.
However, the state socialist' tradition has never been universal on the Left. Western democratic socialists have argued that markets can be regulated to achieve socialist ends (i.e. liberal, egalitarian and fraternal outcomes) without supplanting them by state planning. They have agreed with the Right that monopolistic state ownership and planning endanger liberty and reduce efficiency without necessarily producing either greater equality or solidarity. In the 1980s the state socialist' tradition became totally discredited as President Gorbachov's program of perestroika (restructuring) in the Soviet Union revealed the fundamental failures of the planned economies of the Communist bloc. This discrediting has permitted the democratic socialist Left in Western Europe, such as the Swedish and German Social Democrats, the British Labor Party, and the French Socialists, to clarify their commitment to a mixed economy in which markets are regulated by governments to maximize liberty, equality and community.
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Lenin (Vladimir Ilyich Ulyanov)
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Political Theories of the Left (page 2)
ftsTitle
North Korean gymnasts perform in front of an image of a courageous soldier in praise of the Communist regime. Many Communist states are characterized by centralized economies and vast administrative bureaucracies. In their suppression of free speech and other political parties, and in their regulation of every aspect of human life, totalitarian dictatorships of the Left are virtually indistinguishable from those of the far Right.
Political Theories of the Left (2 of 3)
Fraternity
The Left have been historically associated with the value of fraternity' or, in more explicitly sexist language, with supporting the brotherhood of man'. Fraternity is the least precise of the Left's core values and has been interpreted in various ways. It has been understood first as a commitment to internationalism' - the rejection of the idea that political activity should be bound within the confines of one nation or territory, and support for global political organization and principles. It has also, and to the contrary, been understood as a commitment to nationalism, the emotional solidarity of all citizens of the self-governing nation. Finally, it has been understood as a generalized commitment to collectivism or communitarianism', which is opposed to the egoistic individualism espoused by some of the Right. The understanding of fraternity as collectivism, very prevalent on the Left, is linked to egalitarianism. Historically the Left's commitment to fraternal solidarity was associated with an exclusive commitment to the interests and aspirations of the (manual and male) working class, especially those organized in trade unions. But today the democratic Left extend their conception of community to the people as a whole.
MARXISM
Visions of society which promise the abolition of exploitation and the ordering of economic life for the good of all are almost as old as human history. But, by 1914, most socialists looked for their inspiration and theoretical understanding of the newly industrialized world to the political and economic doctrines of Karl Marx (1818-83), especially as popularized by the later writings of his collaborator Friedrich Engels (1820-95).
In the Manifesto of the Communist Party (1848), Marx had argued that the history of all hitherto existing society is the history of class struggles'. He believed that, at each stage of human development, changes in technology and the organization of the economy had led to revolution and a change in the balance of power between the different social classes. As feudalism had given way to capitalism, so the land-owning nobility had been displaced as the ruling class by that class which owned the new means of production - the factory-owning middle-classes, or bourgeoisie'. Contradictions within the capitalist economic system, Marx claimed, would inevitably lead to its collapse. A new economic and social order would emerge in which the working class (or proletariat) was dominant. Under a dictatorship of the proletariat', the state would use its control of the means of production to create the conditions for a classless society in which goods and services would be distributed according to people's needs.
Through its influence on revolutionary Communists such as Lenin (1870-1924) and Mao Zedong (1893-1976), Marx's thought has helped shape the history of the 20th century. Lenin amended Marx's teachings, urging the need for an elite vanguard' party to hasten proletarian revolution in a backward country. He also argued for the dictatorship of the party rather than of the working class as a whole. Marxism-Leninism' became the guiding doctrine of the Soviet Union and its satellites. Mao adapted Marx's and Lenin's ideas to Chinese conditions and emphasized the revolutionary potential of the peasantry.
* GOVERNMENT AND THE PEOPLE
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Political Theories of the Left (page 3)
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Francois Mitterrand, French Socialist President of France. A socialist politician since 1946, Mitterrand helped unify the Left in France in the 1960s and succeeded in forming, and leading, the new Socialist Party of France in 1971. He was elected President in 1981, and despite his left-wing background has worked with right-wing as well as left-wing French governments. A pragmatic politician, he has often tempered his socialist policies with practical considerations.
Political Theories of the Left (3 of 3)
Rationalism
The Left's values of equality, liberty and community are usually expressed in rationalist political argument. The Left believe that the world can be understood through the powers of human reason. The Left also think that all political institutions must be justified by reason, rather than by appeals to traditions, emotions, religions, intimations or instincts. Unlike conservatives the Left do not regard human beings as inherently imperfect. They believe that most, if not all, political problems and conflicts are soluble through the application of reason. Such rationalism, which entails optimistic conceptions of human nature and the human condition, distinguishes the political theorists and supporters of the Left, whatever their many internal differences over the relative importance of liberty, equality and fraternity, and over the ways in which these values can be implemented.
SOCIAL DEMOCRACY
A number of left-of-center political parties are described as a social democrat. Before 1919 the term described socialist political parties usually subscribing to a Marxist analysis of society. Between 1919 and 1945 the label was used for those left-wing parties which, while often avowedly Marxist, rejected the leadership of the Soviet Union. In the postwar period, the term has come to be applied to democratic left-wing parties committed to working within the existing structure of society to achieve redistribution of wealth, extension of welfare and social security schemes, and limited state management of the economy.
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Political Theories of the Right (page 1)
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Margaret Thatcher with John Major. Mrs Thatcher was a vigorous advocate of popular capitalism' and the free-market philosophy of the New Right. As Prime Minister she reduced government spending, privatized major industries, cut taxes, and called into question the values of the welfare state.
(Political Theories of the Right (1 of 2)
The Right are defined as the opponents of the Left. Like the Left, the Right encompasses a wide range of beliefs. However, four core values lie at the heart of right-wing political thought: authority, hierarchy, property, and community. Though there is much disagreement amongst right-wing political theorists over their interpretation and justification, these four values are generally subsumed under a 'common-sense' political philosophy that rejects the idea that human beings can be made perfect. Varying degrees of commitment among those on the Right to each of these core values is reflected in the existence of different parties of the Right, and in the coexistence of opposed emphases within individual right-wing parties. The British Conservative Party, and the German Christian Democratic Party, for in stance, include traditional conservatives whose notions of paternalistic Christian duty lead them to accept essentially socialist concepts such as the welfare state and some state intervention in the economy. On the other hand, they also include many 'economic liberals', who believe the market should be allowed to function free from government interference - hence they dislike, for example, controls on the labor market and reject government ownership of industry or services such as transport, power or health care. Such 'economic liberals' should not be confused with 'political liberals' - non-socialist upholders of tolerance, freedom of expression and individual liberty who occupy the center ground of politics between Left and Right, and are found in such parties as the British Social and Liberal Democratic Party and the German Free Democratic Party.
Authority
Right-wing political thought in Europe began as a defense of authority. The French Revolution prompted the 'reactionary' Right to de fend the old European order. Its French exponents, notably Joseph de Maistre (1754-1821), defended traditional religious authority against radical skepticism and liberal secularism. They also supported the established, legitimate monarchies against the enthusiasts for liberal republicanism, and rejected any querying of patriarchal authority in the family. Authority was defended above all because it preserved order. Questioning authority threatens social chaos, de Maistre claimed, so obedience to traditional and religiously sanctified rulers is imperative. The law must enforce Christian morality: for there is no distinction between law and morality in such authoritarian thinking. De Maistre asserted that Europe required the restoration of the authority of 'the pope and the executioner'. Present-day religious fundamentalists of the Christian and Islamic faiths embrace a similar authoritarianism.
While the European reactionary Right believed in Catholic authority and absolute monarchy, such positions were not possible for the conservative Right in Britain and America. They defended a Protestant faith, and either a constitutional monarchy or, in the case of the USA, a republic. The Irishman Edmund Burke (1729-97) provided the most coherent expression of this philosophy in his Reflections on the French Revolution (1790). There he predicted that the French Revolution would degenerate into dictatorship, and that the revolutionary destruction of hallowed customs would fragment rather than improve the world, encouraging the unbridled abuse of freedom. Since authority preserves traditions containing the accumulated wisdom and experience of past generations, we should be wary of tampering with it. Authority, Burke argued, permits human beings to evolve while preserving the inheritance of the past. Legitimate authority, based on centuries of evolution, is preferable to a system of naked power manufactured by rationalist revolutionaries; the authoritarian preservation of established morality is superior to the excessive and dangerous freedom of permissive libertarianism.
The tension between the absolutism of de Maistre's reactionary conservatism and Burke's evolutionism illustrates a characteristic division on the Right. Reactionaries seek to restore a vanished and frequently wholly imagined authoritarian past, offering the politics and religion of a better yesterday; evolutionists argue against radical change, but not against all change. This tension explains the existence of separate political parties on the Right, but it is also found within every conservative political movement.
North American and European liberals who reject the reactionary Right's assumptions about the unquestionable merits of ancient authority and religious tradition have nonetheless often found common cause with conservatives in defense of authority. Economic liberals believe that order, stability and traditional family values are essential for the rule of law and the development of a free but disciplined market economy; thus they can sometimes come to pragmatic agreements with conservatives. However, there exists a fundamental and enduring political division between reactionary conservatives and political liberals. The former have no qualms about government's prerogative to exercise unlimited power, as seen for example in the doctrine of 'Parliamentary sovereignty' (the supreme and unrestricted power of Parliament) in Britain. Liberals, by contrast, embrace a political philosophy that seeks to limit and fragment governmental authority - through such devices as the separation of powers and bills of rights. Others on the Right have emphasized the virtues of free markets as a protection against an over-mighty state.
Hierarchy
Reactionaries and conservatives such as de Maistre and Burke unite in defending the merits of traditional hierarchies. The hereditary principle - whether understood as a title to property or status - is considered sacrosanct. Reactionaries and conservatives therefore support monarchy and aristocracy as well as private-property rights. By contrast, both economic and political liberals oppose the universal application of the hereditary principle: they believe in inherited property rights but not in hereditary political rights or titles.
In much right-wing thought, hierarchy is considered the natural form of human existence. Equality by contrast is regarded as the artificial condition. Hierarchy is defended because it provides continuity and encourages diversity. Right-wing political thinkers tend to agree with the ideas of 19th-century Social Darwinism (developed by analogy with Darwin's theory of evolution - in which existence is seen as a struggle for survival of the fittest, and hierarchy as the natural outcome of this struggle. Today they are inclined to believe certain sociobiologists who argue that there are fundamental and immutable intellectual and emotional differences between the races and sexes. Such ideas may easily slip into racism or sexism, and these inclinations lead some on the far Right to defend racial domination and segregation (as practiced under the system of apartheid from 1948 in South Africa) or from 1933 to 1945 by the Nazis in Germany), and to demand the return of women to their traditional roles of child-rearing and domestic labor.
Hierarchicalism also explains why in the past the Right have sometimes been suspicious of democracy, because of its egalitarian tendencies and its rejection of principles of privilege in favor of the belief in the political equality of all adult citizens. The Right today often regard egalitarianism as inevitably taking everybody down to the lowest common denominator - 'leveling down' rather than 'leveling up'; however, they do in general agree on the need for equality of opportunity. Traditional conservatives gradually accepted democratic institutions, such as universal suffrage, when they became persuaded that they would not automatically lead to the removal of privilege. However, most contemporary right-wing thinkers support representative democracy because they see it as the best system of government for a free-market society: they defend representative democracy as a means rather than as an end. Nonetheless, many on the far Right are prepared to sacrifice democratic principles in pursuit of other values - especially when they believe that democratic institutions favor socialist practices or the dilution of racial purity.
Property
Conservatives share with all liberals a firm commitment to individuals' rights to private property - in contrast with socialists and Communists. They cite two arguments for the justice of strong private-property rights. The first, de riving from the English philosopher John Locke, suggests that individuals have a natural right to property on which they have worked, and that this right is transferable. The second, best developed in the work of the German philosopher G.W.F. Hegel, suggests that private property rights are essential if individuals are to be free, and able to exercise their freedom. The Austrian philosopher Friedrich Hayek (1899-1992) argues that without strong private-property rights there are no real individuals - only members of tribes or the 'serfs' of collectivist states such as the Soviet Union under Stalinism.
Traditional conservatives differ from economic liberals, however, in recognizing that the claims of authority or community must sometimes have precedence over the rights of individuals. This difference explains why conservatives on the Right, especially in the European Christian Democratic tradition, sometimes accept the principles of the welfare state - including progressive taxation and state provision of education and health care - which economic liberals consider to be restrictive intrusions on property rights. Economic liberalism - based on the doctrine of the 18th-century Scottish economist Adam Smith - has been on the ascendant amongst the Right in the last two decades. Political exponents of this philosophy, known as the 'New Right', have been especially active in the English-speaking democracies. Supporters of Margaret Thatcher in Britain and former President Reagan in the USA have vigorously pursued tax-cutting, privatization (selling public enterprises into private ownership) and the freeing of business from governmental restrictions, arguing that leaving people free to exploit their property is the best means to advance general prosperity.
* GOVERNMENT AND THE PEOPLE
* POLITICAL THEORIES OF THE LEFT
* ECONOMICS
* CIVIL AND HUMAN RIGHTS
* NATIONALISM IN EUROPE
* THE GROWTH OF TOTALITARIANISM
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Political Theories of the Right (page 2)
ftsTitle
Russian neo-Nazis salute during training in 1993. Since the demise of the Communist governments of the former Soviet bloc, various Fascist and extreme nationalist movements have appeared in Germany, Russia and the Balkans. The rise in the number of refugees seeking asylum in the West has also fostered Fascist and nationalist groups in Western Europe.
Political Theories of the Right (2 of 2)
Community
Conservatives and economic liberals on the Right also differ on the question of commitment to 'community'. Reactionaries and traditionalists, as well as 20th-century Fascists, advocate the building of strong national communities, united by bonds of affection, blood, ethnic identity, language and culture. They argue that economic liberals are merely concerned to establish social relationships on the basis of their practical usefulness, and are self-interested individuals who conduct all their social relations on a contractual basis. 'Romantic' conservatives, like socialists, argue that industrialized economies ordered according to free-market principles produce rootless individuals belonging to no community and consequently lacking a sense of shared cultural traditions. In the past such feelings were expressed in loyalties to the king, the lord, or the village communities of feudal times. Subsequently the traditional Right replaced such loyal ties with loyalty towards the nation. To paraphrase Burke, the idea of the nation cuts across class distinctions to unite all in community with the dead, the living and as yet unborn. Present-day 'New-Right' governments, adhering to economic liberal beliefs, do not believe in a community other than that of the nation-state, and regard society as composed of individuals striving for economic benefits for themselves and their families.
The traditional Right, unlike those economic liberals who believe that national governments should not intervene in the market, are rarely internationalists. Traditional right-wing thinkers support capitalism because they see it as a means of preserving order, hierarchy and property rights, but insist it must be regulated in the national interest. Where capitalism threatens the core values of the traditional Right, then intervention by the government is considered justified. This fact explains why the traditional Right, unlike economic liberals, sometimes justify protectionism as opposed to free trade. It also explains why conservative political thinkers see no inconsistency in rejecting free choice in matters of sexual preference, literature and the dramatic arts: censorship and moral regulation are considered essential to preserve a stable national community. However, the New Right include many libertarians who would like to extend individual freedom, for example by legalizing banned drugs.
Anti-rationalism
The defense by the traditional Right of aristocracy, religion and patriarchy was rarely based on an explicit philosophy. Traditionalists, from the 18th to the 20th century, argue that liberals and socialists produce abstract, unfeeling, ideological and rationalist doctrines, which should be rejected by right-thinking people. Rationalists are accused of seeking to judge all social activity by the yardstick of reason alone, and of remorselessly eroding the complex web of habits and customs that preserve social order and social well-being. Right-wing traditionalists see socialist theorists as ideologues who believe it is possible to plan and change society as if it were a machine, and accuse them of embracing benevolent and simple-minded conceptions of the goodness and rationality of human nature, so ignoring the spontaneous drives and emotions that can be tempered only by the discipline of traditional civilization. This distrust of human capacities and lack of belief in the prospects for human progress is distinctive to the traditional conservative temperament. However, economic liberals - following the ideas of Adam Smith - although agreeing that humanity itself is innately unimprovable, believe that the driving force of economic progress is 'enlightened self-interest', whereby the self-seeking efforts of the wealth creators will eventually lead to greater prosperity for all.
Right-wing political thought has shown a remarkable capacity to absorb opposed ideas. Thus many contemporary right-wing thinkers are influenced by the arguments of liberals and socialists. Their defense of capitalism and private property typically borrows from liberals, and their defense of community often borrows from socialists. The fusion of traditionalism with other ideas can produce a dangerous irrationalism on the Right. For instance, a curious mixture of right-wing doctrine and some socialist ideas lies behind Fascism, which exalts the organic unity of the nation, rejects 'bourgeois' democracy in favor of one-party rule, uses anti-capitalist rhetoric, and singles out racial and other minorities as causes of social stress.
* GOVERNMENT AND THE PEOPLE
* POLITICAL THEORIES OF THE LEFT
* ECONOMICS
* CIVIL AND HUMAN RIGHTS
* NATIONALISM IN EUROPE
* THE GROWTH OF TOTALITARIANISM
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ftsTitleOverride
Economic Systems (page 1)
ftsTitle
Jobless Berliners queuing outside an employment exchange in the early 1930s. (AKG)
@080Economic Systems (1 of 1)
Economics is concerned with the problem of using the available resources of a country as efficiently as possible to achieve the maximum fulfillment of society's unlimited demands for goods and services. The ultimate purpose of economic endeavor is to satisfy human wants for products. The problem is that although wants are virtually without limit, the resources - natural resources, labor and capital - available to produce goods and services are limited in supply.
Since resources are scarce - relative to the demands they are called upon to satisfy - mechanisms are required in order to allocate resources between individual end uses (microeconomics; p. 274) and to ensure that all the available resources are fully employed (macroeconomics; p. 276). An economy can be organized in a number of ways. These are usually described as market, command and mixed economies.
Market economies
In a market or private enterprise economy the means of production are privately held by individuals and businesses. Economic decision- making is highly decentralized, and resources are allocated through a large number of individual markets for goods and services. The market brings together buyers and producers. By establishing prices for products and suitable profit rewards for suppliers, the market will determine how much of a product will be produced and sold.
Proponents of enterprise systems highlight the inefficiencies and rigidities usually associated with state bureaucracies (command economies), and suggest that competition, far from being wasteful, acts as an important spur to efficiency and encourages enterprise, leading to lower prices and better goods and services.
FINANCIAL INSTITUTIONS AND MARKETS
Financial institutions can be classified into two broad groupings - deposit-taking institutions and longer-term savings institutions.
Deposit-taking institutions comprise the commercial banks, savings banks, merchant banks, building societies (called savings and loan societies in the USA) and finance houses. Such institutions rely mainly on deposits from individuals and businesses for their funds. They pay interest on deposits and make a profit on their operations by lending out money or buying securities at higher rates of interest.
The commercial banks provide a money-transmission service for their depositors (for instance redeeming checks and paying standing orders) and are involved in all three categories of short-term finance, as well as mortgage finance. The other deposit-taking institutions operate in narrower areas. Building societies specialize in mortgage finance (loans for buying houses); finance houses specialize in installment loans (i.e. hire purchase) and leasing (buying business assets such as machinery and cars, which are then hired out to companies); savings banks invest most of their funds in loan and share capital and government stocks; merchant banks specialize in business loans and 'underwrite' new share issues on the stock market (i.e. agree to buy up shares that are not sold on the open market).
Longer-term savings institutions include: pension funds (institutions that collect personal savings from contributors to provide them with pension payments in their retirement), insurance companies (companies that collect funds from individuals and businesses on a long-term basis, providing insurance to cover loss of life and injury, or to cover personal and business property against loss or damage), unit trusts and investment trust companies (institutions that issue, respectively, 'units' and shares, principally for purchase by small investors).
The financial markets comprise two main channels for bringing together borrowers and lenders, and savers and investors. These are the money market, which deals primarily in short-term financial securities (such as bills of exchange and Treasury bills) and inter-bank loans; and the stock market, which deals mainly in company stocks and shares and government stocks. The stock market performs two important functions: it provides a 'new-issue' market where companies and the government can raise capital by the sale of new stocks and shares, and it provides a secondary market for the day-to-day buying and selling of existing stocks and shares.
Shares provide a permanent source of finance for as long as the company continues to exist. The shareholders of a company are its legal owners and are entitled to a share in its pro fits. During the 1980s, the growth of multinational companies and financial institutions led to an opening-up of stock markets around the world and a greater interdependency between them. Shares in companies can now be traded simultaneously across stock markets based in New York, London and Tokyo, using new satellite and computerized communication systems for transmitting deals.
Command economies
In a command, centrally planned or state economy, economic decision- making is centralized in the hands of the state. The means of production - except labor - are under collective ownership. The state bureaucracy decides which products - and how many of each - are to be produced in accordance with some centralized national plan. Resources are allocated between producing units by quotas.
Advocates of this system emphasize the benefits of synchronizing and coordinating the allocation of resources as a unified whole, avoiding the 'wastes' of duplication inherent in competition. However, the fundamental failure of the planned economies of the Communist bloc in the late 1980s has totally discredited the theories behind command economies.
LABOR
Labor represents people's contribution to productive activity; it includes both manual tasks such as laying a pipeline, and mental and organizational skills such as managing a business. The labor force of a country consists of employers, employees and the self-employed, together with those registered as unemployed. An economy is working near to its maximum productive capabilities when there is full employment; unemployment represents 'wasted' labor resources and thus 'lost' output potential.
Notable trends in the labor forces of the major Western industrialized countries over the past two decades include an increase in the proportion of women in the labor force, a decline in the average number of hours worked per week and an increase in the number of part-time employees, especially women. A significant trend in the distribution of labor has been the fall in the proportion of the labor force employed in manufacturing industry and a continuing expansion of the service industries. Generally, this is consistent with a change in the pattern of demand and the composition of output in favor of services, but in some countries, notably Britain, employment in the manufacturing sector has been adversely affected by foreign competition.
People who take on a particular job are required to accept the terms and conditions specified by their employers in an employment contract. Failure to meet the requirements of that contract, either through non-compliance or incompetence, may result in dismissal. Individually, workers tend to be in a relatively weak position in relation to their employers, especially in large companies. For this reason, workers have found it expedient to organize themselves into trade unions to increase their bargaining power.
Trade unions are organizations of workers whose primary objective is to protect and advance the economic interests of their members by negotiating pay deals with employers (collective bargaining), and coming to agreements on hours and conditions of work (including paid holidays, and redundancy and dismissal procedures). Trade union membership has declined in many countries in recent years, owing to a lack of interest in and dissatisfaction with trade union policies, and most importantly the structural shifts in the labor force away from the manufacturing industries, the traditional strongholds of union power, towards the less unionized service sector. However, unions continue to play a significant role in the functioning of national economies, in particular by influencing the level of wage rates and, through this, supply costs and prices.
Mixed economies
In a mixed economy the state provides some goods and services (for example, postal services, medical care, education, etc), while others are provided by private enterprise. The precise 'mix' of private enterprise and state activities to be found in particular countries varies substantially and is influenced by the political philosophies of the government concerned .
The formation of the European Community, programs of privatization in Britain, France, and many other countries, and the collapse of the command economies of the countries of the former Soviet bloc, bear testimony to the current ascendancy of the 'free' market economy and the mixed economy.
CAPITAL
Capital refers to investment in such things as factories, training and research; money capital constitutes the means of financing such investment. The three main types of capital investment are capital stock, human capital and research and development.
Capital stock is investment in business and social assets. This comprises investment by private businesses and public corporations in factories, offices, machinery and equipment, etc., and investment by the government in the provision of social capital - roads, railways, schools, hospitals, etc. Capital formation (the process of adding to capital stock) expands the productive capacity of an economy, enabling a greater quantity of goods and services to be supplied. This, together with similar investments in the provision of social capital, contributes significantly to improving a country's general standard of living.
Human capital refers to investment by governments in general education and by government and businesses in vocational training. A better educated and skilled work force not only helps to increase productivity (output per employee) in the economy, but also assists in the more rapid development and introduction of new, superior technologies and products.
Research and development (R & D) is investment in the invention and introduction of new technologies and products. Technological advance frequently involves the removal of existing capital and its replacement by superior production processes and equipment (which help to reduce supply costs), while the introduction of new, more sophisticated and reliable products benefits the consumer.
Investment has to be financed, and this requires savings and borrowing facilities. In some cases a business, individual or government may be able to finance investment out of their own resources: a business might use its retained profits (corporate savings) to buy a new machine. In a large number of cases, however, businesses, individuals and governments have to use other people's money, raising the finance they need by borrowing or issuing financial securities such as stocks and shares . It is in this latter capacity that a country's financial system plays an important role, by channeling savings and other funds into investment uses, as well as financing spending on personal consumption (such as loans to purchase a new car).
The three main types of short-term finance are: a loan (a specified sum of money advanced to a borrower by a lender to cover, for example, personal consumption and the day-to-day financial requirements of a business), an overdraft (a credit facility offered by banks that allows an individual or business to 'overdraw' their bank account up to an agreed limit), and commercial bills of exchange and Treasury bills (fixed-interest securities issued respectively by businesses and the government, and purchased by discount houses and banks).
There are four main types of long-term finance: a mortgage (a specified sum of money advanced to a borrower, to be used to purchase a house, factory, land, etc.), loan capital (fixed-interest securities such as loan stock and debentures issued by a company as a means of borrowing money for a specified period of time, usually upwards of 10 years), share capital (money subscribed to a company by shareholders), and government bonds or stocks (fixed-interest stocks issued by the government).
* POLITICAL IDEOLOGIES
* MICROECONOMICS
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* TRADE
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Microeconomics (1 of 2)
Microeconomics is concerned with how resources that are scarce are allocated to produce a multitude of goods and services to meet the demands of consumers for these products. In capitalist economies the allocation of resources is dealt with through exchange mechanisms known as markets. Markets provide opportunities for buyers and sellers to communicate with one another and exchange their goods and resources. Markets also send out signals that help consumers decide which products and how much of them to buy, and help producers decide which products and how much of them to make.
At the heart of a market system are the forces of demand and supply. The interplay of these forces determines the prices of products, how much of a product will be produced and sold, the prices of resources, and how each product will be made.
Consumers' demand for goods and services depends on several factors. The most important of these are the number of potential customers, their tastes or preferences for products, how much of their income is available to spend on products (disposable income), the price of the product, and the prices of other products that consumers could buy.
The amount of a product that producers are prepared to supply (i.e. sell at a given price) depends on the prices that they pay for the materials, labor and capital needed for making the product. Producers need to cover these production costs if it is to be worth while for them to make the product. They will also bear in mind alternative products that they could make with their resources, and will only continue to supply a particular product if its price covers supply costs, including a 'fair' profit on the capital investment made and the risks taken.
The following simple example explains how the interplay of demand and supply works.
The price system
Let us assume two products, chicken and beef, and that initially prices are such as to equate supply and demand for these products in their respective markets. If there is a change in consumer demand away from beef and towards chicken, the increased demand for chicken - coupled with an unchanged supply of chicken in the short-run - results in an excess demand for chicken at the prevailing price. This extra demand causes the price of chicken to rise. By the same token, the fall in demand for beef - coupled with an unchanged beef supply in the short-run - results initially in an excess supply of beef at the prevailing price and a fall in the price of beef as suppliers seek to clear unsold stocks.
These changes in prices will affect the profits of chicken and beef suppliers. The rising price of chicken will increase the profitability of supplying poultry and the falling price of beef will decrease the profitability of supplying beef. In the long term, existing poultry farmers will expand production and new producers will enter the market, causing the price of chicken to fall until a new equilibrium price - at which supply will again equal demand - is reached. Similarly, the falling price of beef will drive less efficient suppliers out of the market, while other suppliers will cut their output. The resulting decline in beef supply will continue until beef supply adjusts to the lower level of demand and prices stabilize, restoring the equality of supply and demand.
The diagram shows how farmers and firms would respond to changes in demand for chicken and beef and the resulting changes in the prices of these products, the profitability of their producers and the prices of resources used in these two markets. Such forces can affect the regional distribution of industries and employment within a country. If beef production was concentrated in the north of a country and chicken production in the south, the effects on unemployment of the mechanism traced in the diagram would be considerable.
The market mechanism
In the diagram, market changes were initiated by changes in consumer demand for products, which in turn led to changes in the demand for, and price of, resources. But changes in the relative scarcity and price of resources can also affect markets. For example, if beef is produced through labor-intensive grazing, while chickens are reared in mechanized battery units needing little labor, then overall increases in wage rates caused by labor shortages would affect beef and chicken production differentially. Chicken producers would find their production costs hardly affected and so would need to raise their prices very little; while beef producers would have a strong incentive to mechanize production and substitute capital for comparatively expensive labor to keep production costs down, or would be forced to raise beef prices substantially to cover increased costs and lost sales as demand declined.
The response to supply within the price system to changes in consumer demand may be very slow and painful, because less efficient producers are not eliminated quickly but linger on making low profits or losses. In addition, resources cannot always be easily switched from one activity to another. For example, in the case of labor, a significant amount of retraining may be required or workers may be required to move from one area of the country to another. Thus, occupational and geographical immobilities may inhibit effective resource redeployment.
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p274-2
Microeconomics (2 of 2)
Monopolies
The market forces depicted in the diagram will only operate properly where markets are competitively structured. Without numerous sellers to provide competition, suppliers have no incentive to keep prices down to levels that just cover costs and offer a normal profit or return on the capital employed. Furthermore, in market situations with only a single supplier (monopoly) or only a few large suppliers (oligopoly), there exists a number of barriers to market entry of new suppliers. Such factors as heavy advertising (causing strong consumer preferences for existing brands), and the control of raw materials and market outlets by established firms, may prevent new firms from moving into the markets. Increased consumer demand in such markets may simply lead to higher prices and profits for the monopolist or oligopolists, without any increase in the resources deployed there.
To counter potential exploitation of consumers by monopolies, most governments have regulatory bodies such as the Office of Fair Trading (OFT) and the Monopolies and Mergers Commission (MMC) in Britain, and the Anti-Trust Division of the Supreme Court in the USA. Such bodies monitor the behavior of monopolists and investigate mergers between suppliers.
MICROECONOMIC POLICY
Because of the problems involved in responding to market mechanisms, governments often attempt to improve the allocation of resources by using a variety of industrial, competition, regional and labor policies. Industrial policy, for example, can be used to reorganize industries beset by excess capacity, by compensating firms for leaving the industry or encouraging firms to merge and close down redundant plant. Industrial policy can also be used to foster innovation by providing grants and tax benefits to firms investing in research and development and to provide retraining facilities to improve occupational mobility.
Competition policy can be used to prevent dominant firms from profiteering at the expense of consumers and to outlaw price-fixing agreements between firms. Similarly, competition policy can be used to prevent mergers and takeovers likely to have anti-competitive consequences.
Regional policies can be used alongside macroeconomic policies to stimulate employment opportunities by encouraging new firms and industries to invest in areas of high unemployment to replace declining industries. It is also possible for a government to improve the functioning of resource markets through labor policies - for example, attacking restrictive labor practices and reducing the monopoly power of trade unions.
ADAM SMITH
The workings of the market mechanism were first outlined by the Scottish economist and philosopher Adam Smith (1723-90) in his influential book An Inquiry into the Nature and Causes of the Wealth of Nations (1776). Smith emphasized the benefits of specialization and exchange. His contention was that if producers were free to seek profits by providing goods and services, then the 'invisible hand' of market forces will ensure that the right goods and services are produced. Provided that markets remain free of government regulation, competition will ensure that production is dictated by what buyers want.
The theory of economic liberalism - based upon the doctrine of Adam Smith - rose to prominence on the political Right during the 1980s. Political exponents of this philosophy, known as the 'New Right', have been especially active in English-speaking democracies. The adoption of the market by most of the former Communist states has added to current interest in the theories of Adam Smith.
* POLITICAL THEORIES
* ECONOMIC SYSTEMS
* MACROECONOMICS
* FROM RAW MATERIAL TO THE CONSUMER
* BUSINESS ORGANIZATION AND ACCOUNTING
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Microeconomics (page 2)
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Macroeconomics (page 1)
ftsTitle
Homeless unemployed people sleeping rough on the streets of London. Full employment is a major macroeconomic objective. During a recession, labor is laid off as demand for goods and services falls. Homelessness increased sharply in Britain and the USA in the early 1990s when the loss of employment meant that some people were no longer able to keep up their mortgage payments. (Gamma)
,Macroeconomics (1 of 1)
Macroeconomics is concerned with how the economy as a whole 'works'. It seeks to identify the factors that determine the levels of national income, output and spending, employment and prices, and the balance of payments.
The premise of macroeconomics - and the rationale for governments 'managing the economy' - is that there are certain 'forces' at work in the economy that transcend individual markets ( p. 272). The level of spending in the economy affects all markets to a greater or lesser degree as well as affecting the overall levels of employment and prices in the economy. Thus, if total spending (i.e. aggregate demand) is too low relative to the output potential of the economy (i.e. aggregate supply) the result is likely to be rising unemployment. If total spending is too high, causing the economy to 'overheat', the result may be inflation (box) and/or rising levels of imports, leading to balance of payments problems.
Income and expenditure
'Households' purchase goods and services from 'businesses', using incomes received from supplying economic 'resources' (their labor and/or capital) to businesses. Businesses produce goods and services using resources supplied to them by households. This basic model can be developed to incorporate a number of 'injections' to and 'withdrawals' from the flow of national income.
Businesses not only produce consumer goods, they also produce investment or capital goods (factories, machines, etc). Investment injects funds back into the income flow. Part of the income received by households is taxed by the government and serves to reduce the amount of income that consumers have available to spend. Taxation is a withdrawal from the income flow. However, when governments spend their taxation receipts by providing public goods (schools, roads, etc.) and benefits such as old-age pensions and unemployment benefit, they inject income back into the flow.
Households spend part of their income on goods and services produced abroad. Im ports are a withdrawal from the income flow. On the other hand, some output is sold to overseas customers. Exports represent spending by foreigners on domestically produced goods and services and so constitute an injection into the income flow.
Macroeconomic policy
Governments attempt to manage or control income and spending flows in the economy in order to ensure that they are consistent with their overall economic objectives. Typically, governments are concerned to secure four main macroeconomic objectives:
Full employment - unemployment is to be avoided not only because of its social consequences but also because it results in 'lost' output to the country;
Price stability - inflation is to be avoided because it produces harmful effects, for example people on fixed incomes - such as pensioners - suffer a fall in their standard of living;
Economic growth - growth enables the economy to produce more goods and services over time, serving to increase living standards;
Balance of payments equilibrium - a persistent excess of imports over exports is to be avoided since this is likely to lower domestic income and lead to job losses.
Governments use four main methods to control the level and distribution of spending in the economy - fiscal policy, monetary policy, prices and incomes policies and management of the exchange rate.
Fiscal policy
Fiscal policy involves the use of various taxation measures to control spending. If spending needs to be reduced, the authorities can, for example, increase direct taxes on individuals (raising income tax rates) and companies (raising corporation tax rates). Spending can also be reduced by increasing indirect taxes - an increase in the value-added tax (VAT) on products in general, or an increase in excise duties on particular products such as oil or beer will, by increasing their prices, lead to a reduction in purchasing power. Alternatively, the government can use changes in its own expenditure to affect spending levels; a cut in current purchases of products or capital investment by the government, for example, will reduce total spending in the economy.
Taxation and government expenditure are linked together in terms of the government's overall fiscal or budget position. A budget surplus (with government taxation and other receipts exceeding expenditure) serves to decrease total spending, while a budget deficit (where expenditure is greater than taxation receipts) serves to increase total spending in the economy.
Monetary policy
Monetary policy involves the regulation of the money supply (notes and coins, bank deposits, etc.), and of credit and interest rates in the economy. If, for example, the authorities wish to reduce the level of spending they can seek to reduce the money supply by an open market operation such as selling government securities to the general public. Buyers pay for these securities by running down their bank deposits - an important component of the money supply. This forces the banks in turn to reduce the amount of bank loans to personal and business customers.
The authorities can also seek to reduce spending by making borrowing more expensive, i.e. by increasing interest rates on loans used to buy cars, televisions, houses, etc. This is done by direct government intervention in the money markets to reduce the availability of monetary assets relative to the demand for them, and so forcing up base lending rates. The authorities may use more direct methods to limit credit by, for example, 'instructing' the banks to limit or reduce the amount of loans they make available.
Prices and incomes policies
Prices and incomes policies are statutory controls on costs and prices of goods, raw materials, wages and salaries. In Britain, Germany and the USA policies to restrain increases in prices and in incomes have been implemented through voluntary agreements with trade unions and business. In Scandinavian countries, wage increases have been arrived at through centralized collective bargaining. Communist governments, for ex ample, in the former USSR, controlled the prices of staple items of food, heating costs and rent.
Exchange rates
The management of the exchange rate - the price of the currency of one country against the price of the currency of another country - influences a country's external trade and payments position ( box).
EXCHANGE RATES
Exchange rates are fixed when countries use specific measures of a metal, for example gold, or some other agreed standard to define how much the currency is worth. When supply and demand or speculation determines the value of a currency, it is said to be floating. Most currencies - including the Russian ruble since 1992 - are allowed to float but do so within limits managed by individual governments.
The ERM (Exchange Rate Mechanism) is an agreement between most of the members of the European Community (EC) to limit movement in the value of their currencies. ERM members agree a set of exchange rates against each other's currencies and a margin on either side of these central rates to allow for daily movement in the markets. Within such a system, a currency may become overvalued, leading to pressure upon the government concerned to devalue the currency.
When the currency of a country is devalued it becomes worth less in terms of other currencies. The goods and services offered by that country therefore become cheaper on the international market and the terms of trade are said to be in its favor, at least in the short term. However, imports, including raw materials from abroad, will be more expensive and the cost advantage enjoyed by exports may not last long. If a currency is revalued - becoming worth more in terms of other currencies - its exports become more expensive, but its imports become cheaper.
GROSS NATIONAL PRODUCT
Gross National Product (GNP) is generally considered the best way of measuring the economic power of a country. GNP comprises the GDP plus income received from abroad, less payments made abroad.
Gross Domestic Product (GDP) is the sum of all output produced domestically. It is usually stated to be equal to total domestic expenditure plus the value of exports, less the value of imports. There are, however, three ways of estimating GDP in use by different countries: the expenditure basis estimates GDP on the basis of how much money has been spent in a country; the output basis or net material product (NMP) estimates GDP on the basis of the value of goods that have been sold in a country; the income basis estimates GDP on the basis of how much income has been earned in a country.
National income is the sum of all income received in an economy during one particular period of time, usually one financial year. It is equal to GNP less depreciation.
The GNPs of the major industrial powers in 1992 were as follows:
The GNPs of the major industrial
powers in 1992 were as follows:
Country GNP in US dollars
USA 5905000000000
Japan 3508000000000
Germany 1846000000000
France 1279000000000
Italy 1187000000000
United Kingdom 1025000000000
Canada 566000000000
Spain 548000000000
China 442000000000
Brazil 425000000000
Russian Federation 398000000000
Netherlands 312000000000
ECONOMIC DOCTRINES
For most of the period since 1945, monetary policy has been widely used as a short-term measure but has largely taken second place to fiscal policy - the regulation of taxation and government spending as a means of controlling the level and composition of spending in the economy. This reflects the dominance of the ideas of the British economist John Maynard Keynes (1883-1946). However, in a number of countries, the recent influence of monetarist ideas has led to long-term control of the money supply taking center stage in government economic policy. The depression of the early 1930s led Keynes to argue that unemployment can only be avoided by government spending on public-works programs. His advocacy of government intervention in the economy caused several nations to adopt spending programs in the 1930s, for example, Roosevelt's 'New Deal' in the USA. Despite the current popularity of monetarist policies, Keynesian economics continues to influence many governments today.
Monetarism as an economic doctrine emphasizes the role of money - in particular the money supply - in the functioning of the economy. Unlike Keynesian economists, monetarists believe that with the exception of managing the money supply, governments should not intervene in the economy. The historical roots of modern monetarism - associated with the work of the American economist Milton Friedman (1912- ) - lie in the quantity theory of money, which indicates that excessive increases in the money supply will lead to inflation. In policy terms, this means that the amount of money in the economy used to finance purchases of goods and services (aggregate demand) has to be 'balanced' with the economy's ability to produce goods and services (aggregate supply). If the money supply is increased at a faster rate than the supply capacity of the economy, then the excess demand created will result in inflation. Monetarist policies were adopted by the governments of a number of countries in the 1970s and 1980s, including Britain, the USA and Argentina.
* POLITICAL THEORIES
* MICROECONOMICS
* TRADE
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Trade (page 1)
ftsTitle
A French farmer unloads weeds on to sacks symbolizing wheat from the USA in October 1994. French farmers complained about the import of American wheat into the European Union, which affected their trade. French opposition to free trade in agricultural products was a major factor in delaying the conclusion of GATT and then World Trade Organization agreements in the 1990s.
Trade (1 of 3)
All countries to a greater or lesser degree are dependent on international trade. Trade is a two-way process involving imports and exports. Countries receive payment from trading partners for domestic goods and services exported; they make payments to trading partners for goods and services imported.
International trade can be divided into two main groups of products: trade in goods, consisting of agricultural produce, minerals and manufactured goods; and trade in services, consisting of earnings from shipping and air freight, banking, insurance and management services, as well as receipts and payments from foreign investments and government transactions.
In 1990 Western Europe accounted for about 45% of total world trade, followed by Asia (20%) and North America (17%). The 'top ten' exporters of goods are Germany, the USA, Japan, France, the UK, Italy, Russia, Canada, the Netherlands and Belgium (with Luxembourg). The 'top ten' exporters of services are the USA, the UK, France, Germany, Japan, Belgium (with Luxembourg), Italy, the Netherlands, Switzerland and Spain. Both sectors are dominated by the older developed countries, although in the goods trade a number of 'newly industrializing' countries (Taiwan, Hong Kong and South Korea) are also becoming significant exporters.
In recent years, international trade flows have become increasingly complex, with the continued rapid growth of multinational companies. Ford Motors, for example, make car engines in Britain and gearboxes in Germany. These - along with other parts - are then shipped to Spain and assembled into complete vehicles for export to other European markets.
International trade grew at an annual rate of around 8% from the late 1950s until 1973. During this period trade was stimulated by high rates of economic growth and the pursuit of 'free trade' policies. Although the major oil price increases of 1973 and 1979 reduced economic growth rates and created balance of payments and debt problems for many countries, international trade has continued to expand at an annual average rate of around 4% since 1973.
The benefits of international trade
Countries trade with one another for the same reasons that individuals, firms and regions within a country engage in the exchange of goods and services - to obtain the benefits of specialization. By exporting its own products in exchange for imports of products from other nations, a country can enjoy a wider range of goods and services (many of which, such as scarce raw materials or high technology products, may be unobtainable from domestic sources), and obtain them more cheaply than would otherwise be the case. An international division of labor in which each country specializes in the production of only some of the goods that it is capable of producing enables total world output to be increased. It can also help to raise countries' standards of living.
A country's choice of which products to specialize in will be determined to a large extent by the comparative advantages it possesses over others in the production of particular products. Such advantages occur largely as a result of differences between countries in their factor endowments (the availability and cost of raw materials, labor and capital) and their level of economic sophistication and skills.
Free trade and protectionism
The achievement of the potential benefits of international trade is best secured by free trade - the absence of any restrictions on the free movement of goods and services from one country to another. Countries have attempted to promote free trade both by the General Agreement on Tariffs and Trade (GATT), its successor (from 1995), the World Trade Organization, and the formation of various regional free trade blocs. GATT achieved significant tariff cuts on many products, and the complete elimination of tariff and quota restrictions on some items. Free trade blocs are more limited in scope. While they promote free trade between member countries, they also involve trade restrictions against non-members. There are three main types of trade bloc:
A free trade area (such as the former EFTA), where members eliminate trade barriers between themselves but each separately continues to operate its own particular barriers against non-members.
A customs union, where members eliminate trade barriers between themselves but establish uniform barriers against non-members.
A common market (such as the EC; p. 286), a customs union that also establishes common rules, standards and practices so that members' economies are harmonized into a 'single market'. It also allows the free movement of labor and capital across the national boundaries.
In practice the benefits of international trade are often unequally divided between countries and this tends to produce situations where national self-interest is put first. Protectionism occurs when governments take measures to protect their domestic industries from foreign competition or seek to reverse a balance of payments deficit. The most direct forms of protectionism are:
Tariffs, the imposition of taxes or duties on imported products. This raises their prices in the domestic market, thereby encouraging buyers to switch to domestically produced substitutes;
Quotas, the use of physical controls to limit imports of a product to a specified number of units;
Exchange controls, the limitation by the monetary authorities (central banks) of the amount of foreign currency made available for the purchase of imported products.
Indirect forms of protectionism include complex import documentation requirements and customs procedures, local market standards requiring imported products to be modified, and government subsidies to domestic firms to lower their costs and compete more effectively with imports.
* ECONOMIC SYSTEMS
* MICROECONOMIC SYSTEMS
* MACROECONOMICS
* FROM RAW MATERIALS TO THE CONSUMER
* INTERNATIONAL ORGANIZATIONS 2
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p278-2
ftsTitleOverride
Trade (page 2)
ftsTitle
Luxury goods on sale in Hanoi, Vietnam. In the 1980s when trade was restricted, very little foreign produce was available in Vietnam. Today the movement of goods is much freer and almost any brand of foreign items, such as French wine and Russian caviar, can be found.
TRADE (2 OF 3)
TRADE AND THE BALANCE OF PAYMENTS
A country's balance of payments represents the net results over a particular time period (usually one year) of its trade and financial transactions with the rest of the world. The table shows Britain's balance of payments for 1990. The current account shows the country's profit and loss in day-to-day dealings.
The visible trade balance indicates the difference between the value of Britain's exports and imports of goods (raw materials, fuel, foodstuffs and manufactures). The invisible trade balance includes earnings from and payments for such services as shipping, banking, insurance and tourism; interest, profits and dividends on investments and loans; and government receipts and spending on defense, overseas administration, etc.
The investment and other capital transactions account covers the purchase of physical assets (such as new factories) and financial assets (such as stocks and shares) by British and overseas individuals, companies and governments, and a variety of interbank dealings in sterling and foreign currencies. Also included in the capital transactions account are movements in Britain's stock of international reserves of gold and foreign currencies. An overall balance of payments deficit is financed by a fall in the reserves (and/or increased borrowing), while a surplus leads to an addition to the reserve position.
BRITAIN'S BALANCE OF PAYMENTS, 1990
Current Account
million
Visible balance*
Food, beverages and tobacco -4620
Basic materials -3280
Oil, lubricants 387
Manufactures -11440
Other items 278
_____
-18675
Invisible balance**
Services balance 5201
Interest, profit and
dividends balance 4029
Transfers balance
(mainly government
European Community payments) -4935
_____
4295
Current balance -14380
Transactions in UK assets and liabilities
(investment and other capital transactions)
UK external assets
(increase) -72300
UK external liabilities
(increase) 84381
Net transactions 12081
* Visible trade - flows of goods which are recorded by the customs and excise authorities as they enter or leave the country.
** Invisible trade - transactions that are recorded by the Bank of England from company and bank foreign currency receipts and payments data.
* ECONOMIC SYSTEMS
* MICROECONOMIC SYSTEMS
* MACROECONOMICS
* FROM RAW MATERIALS TO THE CONSUMER
* INTERNATIONAL ORGANIZATIONS 2
Encyclopedia
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p278-3
TRADE (3 OF 3)
TRADE, THE EXCHANGE RATE AND THE BALANCE OF PAYMENTS
The graph shows the rate, or price, at which British pounds (
s) might exchange for US dollars ($s). The downward demand curve for
s (DD) reflects the fact that if
s become less expensive, British goods and services will become cheaper to Americans. This results in Americans demanding greater quantities of British products and therefore larger amounts of
s with which to purchase those products. The upward supply curve for
s (SS) reflects the fact that as the $ price of
s increases, American goods become cheaper to the British. This results in the British demanding greater quantities of American goods - hence the greater supply of
s offered in exchange for $s with which to purchase these products.
The intersection of the demand and supply curves for
s will determine the equilibrium' $ price of
s. In this case British-American trade and the balance of payments are in equilibrium: British exports to America create a demand for
s equal to the quantity made available from the imports of American products.
LEADING EXPORTERS OF GOODS AND SERVICES, 1989
Goods Services*
% of % of
World World
Total Total
1. USA 11.8 USA 19.1
2. Germany** 11.0 UK 14.4
3. Japan 8.9 Japan 10.1
4. France 5.8 France 8.4
5. UK 4.9 Germany** 6.8
6. Italy 4.6 Belgium & Luxembourg 5.3
7. Canada 3.9 Italy 4.3
8. USSR 3.5 Netherlands 3.7
9. Netherlands 3.5 Switzerland 3.4
10. Belgium & Luxembourg 3.2 Spain 2.6
Total of above 61.1 78.1
* includes investment income; ** West Germany only
COMPARATIVE ADVANTAGE
In its most simplified form - a world economy consisting of two countries (Orania and Techland), and two products (corn and cars) - the theory of comparative advantage generates the following relationship of international production and trade.
Assuming Orania has an abundance of cheap labor but little capital, while Techland has an abundance of cheap capital but a small labor force, and that corn production is labor-intensive and car production is capital-intensive, then Orania has a comparative advantage over Techland in the production of corn, while Techland has a comparative advantage over Orania in the production of cars.
It follows that both countries gain from specialization and trade. Orania produces corn and exports some of it in exchange for imports of cars. Techland produces cars and trades some of them for imports of corn.
PRODUCTION AND TRADE
A country's economy is made up of a complex amalgam of industries - some produce goods and services such as cars, soap and banking services for the final consumer, while others are engaged in the provision of intermediate products. These include raw materials such as farm products (wheat, livestock, etc.), natural products (crude oil, timber, etc.) and component parts (steel, textiles, etc.). The passage of goods from raw materials to consumers requires a business infrastructure consisting of factories, offices, road and rail networks and a range of facilitating services, including finance, distribution, insurance and marketing. In fact, the manufacture and distribution of a typical consumer product involve a long chain of related activities. These start with the extraction and processing of raw materials, then move through various component and manufacturing stages and via a number of distribution channels before reaching the consumer.
The diagram illustrates the various end products produced in the chemical and petrochemical industries from the basic raw materials of oil and natural gas. Crude oil is extracted from oil wells and then transported by pipeline or shipped to an oil refinery, located either close to the oil wells or in a major industrial center. At the refinery crude oil is broken down into various 'primary' base materials such as ethylene and propylene. These primary derivatives are processed and combined with chemicals and other materials to form 'secondary' materials, such as polyethylene and phenol, to produce a wide range of products, including pharmaceuticals, cosmetics, paint, detergents, tires and clothing.
To take the example of a plastic bread bin, a firm engaged in plastic fabrication might use ethylene as a basic raw material in the processing of various chemicals to produce secondary materials such as polyethylene and polystyrene. These materials in turn would be processed further, combined with other materials and subjected to various treatments and assembly operations before finally emerging as finished products. Each of these activities may be undertaken by firms specializing at a particular level, or combined and performed as part of a vertically integrated operation. For example, oil companies such as BP and Shell are involved in oil exploration and extraction, and in refining and manufacturing, as well as in retailing petrol.
Products reach markets through distribution channels. These incorporate a sequence of value-adding activities that assist the passage of goods from raw materials to the consumer. Manufacturers typically produce large quantities of a limited variety of goods, while consumers normally want a limited quantity of a broad range of goods. Therefore, a number of distribution tasks must be undertaken to en sure that goods of appropriate quality and form are provided to customers in the right quantities, at the right time and at convenient locations. Market information must be gathered, storage provided for goods, and large quantities broken down into smaller lots. Also, retail outlets need to be set up close to consumers, and credit and service facilities established.
The East Asian trading nations
Asian economists have described a flying geese' pattern of economic development in East Asia. This V' formation sees manufacturing prowess and export dynamism spreading down from its original Asian center and leader, Japan, to the newly industrializing countries' (NICs) of South Korea, Singapore, Taiwan and Hong Kong, and then to the countries of the Association of Southeast Asian Nations (ASEAN) and China. Japan has become the second largest economy in the world after the USA - a huge trader and investor, and the largest aid provider to the Third World. The hallmark of NIC economies has been export-led growth, through the best use of cheap - but relatively well-educated - labor. Today these countries have attained marked levels of affluence, and all are amongst the world's top twenty trading nations. The resource-rich ASEAN countries (Indonesia, Malaysia, the Philippines and Thailand) and China are now beginning to make their mark as exporters of manufactured goods.
se materials in turn would be processed further, combined with other materials and subjected to various treatments and assembly operations before finally emerging as finished products. Each of these activities may be undertaken by firms specializing at a particular level, or combined and performed as part of a vertically integrated operation. For example, oil companies such as BP and Shell are involved in oil exploration and extraction, and in refining and manufacturing, as well as in retailing petrol.
Products reach markets through distribution channels. These incorporate a sequence of value-adding activities that assist the passage of goods from raw materials to the consumer. Manufacturers typically produce large quantities of a limited variety of goods, while consumers normally want a limited quantity of a broad range of goods. Therefore, a number of distribution tasks must be undertaken to en sure that goods of appropriate quality and form are provided to customers in the right quantities, at the right time and at convenient locations. Market information must be gathered, storage provided for goods, and large quantities broken down into smaller lots. Also, retail outlets need to be set up close to consumers, and credit and service facilities established.
The East Asian trading nations
Asian economists have described a flying geese' pattern of economic development in East Asia. This V' formation sees manufacturing prowess and export dynamism spreading down from its original Asian center and leader, Japan, to the newly industrializing countries' (NICs) of South Korea, Singapore, Taiwan and Hong Kong, and then to the countries of the Association of Southeast Asian Nations (ASEAN; see p. 287) and China. Japan has become the second largest economy in the world after the USA - a huge trader and investor, and the largest aid provider to the Third World. The hallmark of NIC economies has been export-led growth, through the best use of cheap - but relatively well-educated - labor. Today these countries have attained marked levels of affluence, and all are amongst the world's top twenty trading nations. The resource-rich ASEAN countries (Indonesia, Malaysia, the Philippines and Thailand) and China are now beginning to make their mark as exporters of manufactured goods.
* ECONOMIC SYSTEMS
* MICROECONOMIC SYSTEMS
* MACROECONOMICS
* FROM RAW MATERIALS TO THE CONSUMER
* INTERNATIONAL ORGANIZATIONS 2
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Trade (page 3)
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p280-1
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From Raw Material to the Consumer (page 1)
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Tea-picking in India. Natural products such as tea, coffee, cotton and rubber are bought and sold by brokers on behalf of clients in commodity markets in major cities such as London and New York. India and Sri Lanka - two of the world's largest tea-producers - operate their own commodity markets for tea.
From Raw Material to the Consumer (1 of 4)
A country's economy is made up of a complex and varied amalgam of industries. Some of these produce goods and services such as motorcars, soap powder and banking services for the final consumer, while others are engaged in the provision of intermediate products. These include raw materials such as farm products (wheat, livestock, cotton, etc.), natural products (crude oil, timber, iron ore, etc.) and component parts (steel, textiles, small motors, etc.). The passage of goods from raw materials to the final consumer requires a business infrastructure consisting of factories, offices, road and rail networks and a range of facilitating services, most importantly finance, distribution, insurance and marketing.
In fact, the manufacture and distribution of a typical consumer product involve a long chain of related activities. These start with the extraction and processing of raw materials, then move through various component and manufacturing stages and via a number of distribution channels before reaching the final consumer.
From raw materials to finished product
The diagram illustrates the various end products that can be produced in the chemical and petrochemical industries from the basic raw materials of oil and natural gas.
The chain begins with the extraction of crude oil from land- and sea-based oil wells; this is then transported by pipeline or shipped to an oil refinery located either close to the oil wells or in a major industrial center. At the refinery crude oil is broken down into various 'primary' base materials such as ethylene, butadiene and propylene. These primary derivatives are then processed and combined with chemicals and other materials to form 'secondary' materials, such as polyethylene and phenol, to produce a diverse range of products, including pharmaceuticals, cosmetics, paint, detergents, tires and clothing.
To take the example of a plastic bread bin, a firm engaged in plastic fabrication might use ethylene as a basic raw material in the processing of various chemicals to produce secondary materials such as polyethylene, polystyrene, polypropylene and polyvinyl chloride (PVC). These materials in turn would be processed further, combined with other materials and subjected to various treatments and assembly operations before finally emerging as finished products.
Each of these activities may be undertaken by firms specializing at a particular level, or combined and performed as part of a vertically integrated operation. For example, oil companies such as BP and Shell are involved in oil exploration and extraction, and in refining and manufacturing. (They are also involved in the distribution of some products, for instance the retailing of petrol through company-owned filling stations.) In other cases chemical companies, such as ICI and Hoechst, combine the production of base chemicals and the manufacture of finished products.
Products reach markets through distribution channels. These incorporate a sequence of value-adding activities that assist the passage of goods from raw materials to the final consumer. Manufacturers typically produce large quantities of a limited variety of goods, while consumers normally want a limited quantity of a broad range of goods. Consequently, a number of distribution tasks must be undertaken to ensure that goods of appropriate quality and form are provided to customers in the right quantities, at the right time and at convenient locations. Market information must be gathered, storage must be provided for goods, and large quantities (such as pallets) must be broken down into smaller lots (such as individual packs). Also, retail outlets need to be set up close to consumers, and credit and service facilities established.
The performance of these tasks is essential for the effective provision of goods. Firms may choose to integrate these operations and carry them out themselves or, alternatively, they may use intermediaries, i.e. independent firms employed for their specialist skills and efficiency in making contacts between producers and consumers. In advanced economies the use of intermediaries is common, and a typical distribution channel consists of three basic types of closely related operation: manufacturing, wholesaling and retailing.
Wholesalers
Wholesalers buy products in large quantities from manufacturers. They store them in warehouses and earn profits by selling them in smaller quantities and at higher prices to retailers. Wholesalers thus act as 'middlemen' between producers and retailers of products, removing the need for suppliers themselves to stock and distribute their goods to retailers, and for retailers to run their own warehouses. Wholesalers provide market coverage, offer product assortments, aid in processing orders, handle inventories and gather market information. Traditionally they provided their retail customers with services such as credit facilities, technical assistance and delivery, i.e. they were full-function wholesalers. In recent years, however, limited-function wholesalers such as 'cash-and-carry' operations have become a prominent feature of distribution systems. As its name implies, 'cash and carry' involves retailers themselves collecting goods from the wholesaler's warehouse and making an immediate cash payment for them. Generally, though, independent wholesalers have declined in importance: distribution tasks previously within their province have increasingly been taken over by large chain-store retailing groups.
* FOOD PROCESSING
* CAPITAL AND LABOR
* THE MARKET
* GOVERNMENT AND THE NATIONAL ECONOMY
* THE INTERNATIONAL ECONOMY
* BUSINESS ORGANIZATION AND ACCOUNTING
* OIL AND GAS
* MINING, MINERALS AND METALS
* IRON AND STEEL
* RUBBER AND PLASTICS
* TEXTILES
* CHEMICALS AND BIOTECHNOLOGY
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From Raw Material to the Consumer (3 of 4)
Retailers
Retailing is the provision of a 'point of sale', such as a shop or store, vending machine or kiosk, which a prospective buyer of a product can visit to make a purchase. Retailers create product assortments that anticipate and/or fulfill consumer needs and wants. They offer products in appropriate quantities for family consumption and provide the facility for the 'final exchange of value' - i.e. payment for the good. Retailers earn profits by selling goods at prices above those they pay to either wholesalers or manufacturers.
Although some retailers are involved in the preparation and packaging of products before their final sale (for example, butchers and fruit and flower retailers), most are engaged in selling a range of pre-packed complete items. Retailers in Britain used to play a relatively passive role in the distribution channel, merely providing a convenient point of sale for manufacturers' products. The controlling influence of suppliers was evident in, for example, 'resale price maintenance', a practice that sets the retail price of the products. However, with the emergence of large multi-shop retailing chains, such as supermarkets and do-it-yourself (DIY) groups, the balance of power has shifted towards retailers. Retailing groups have increasingly combined the wholesaling and retailing functions and, by dealing directly with manufacturers, they have been able to exploit their bulk-buying power to obtain substantial price discounts. Through the development of the 'self-service' concept and the introduction of electronic storage and check-out systems, a few large groups have been able to increase their market share by offering customers highly competitive prices. Moreover, the scale of their operations has made it advantageous for retailers to develop an extensive range of 'own-label goods' (i.e. products bearing the retailer's own brand name), which they sell in direct competition with manufacturers' brands. Similarly, small retailers have banded together in 'voluntary groups' such as SPAR and MACE to obtain bulk-buying price concessions from manufacturers.
Retail outlets include: Specialist shops: outlets concentrating either totally on a particular type of product or on a narrow range of related products, for example a shoe shop or a chemist's shop.
Discount stores: outlets specializing in a limited range of products that they sell at highly 'discounted' prices (i.e. at prices substantially below manufacturers' listed prices).
Department stores: outlets selling a very wide range of products, being divided up into a number of 'departments', each offering its own distinctive product range.
Supermarkets or hypermarkets: outlets selling a comprehensive range of products at competitive prices. Supermarkets initially appeared mainly in the grocery sector, but they now often provide non-food lines, such as hardware, decorating materials, footwear and clothing, radio and television.
In addition to the traditional form of retailing in which prospective buyers visit a shop, there also exist various 'home shopping' systems. These can take a variety of forms, with customers filling in and returning coupons in newspapers for advertised goods, or ordering goods from a mail order catalogue for delivery direct to their homes.
For many products distributive arrangements are multi-dimensional, with a number of different channels being used by a manufacturer to maximize sales potential. The diagram illustrates a number of ways in which a bread bin might reach the final buyer.
Distribution systems similar to those described above are to be found in most advanced industrial countries, although in some - most notably Japan - there exist many more 'layers' of distribution intermediaries. This can make it more difficult for foreign products to break into such markets.
CP/CE
* FOOD PROCESSING
* CAPITAL AND LABOR
* THE MARKET
* GOVERNMENT AND THE NATIONAL ECONOMY
* THE INTERNATIONAL ECONOMY
* BUSINESS ORGANIZATION AND ACCOUNTING
* OIL AND GAS
* MINING, MINERALS AND METALS
* IRON AND STEEL
* RUBBER AND PLASTICS
* TEXTILES
* CHEMICALS AND BIOTECHNOLOGY
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From Raw Material to the Consumer (4 of 4)
CHANNELS OF DISTRIBUTION
As the diagram below illustrates, there are a number of possible distribution channels for moving goods to the final consumer. The channel used will reflect the relative costs and marketing effectiveness of the various systems, and will also depend upon 'tradition' in the trade, the nature of the product and the characteristics of the markets being served.
Line 1 shows a conventional channel structure with the products being moved through independent intermediaries at each separate stage. Line 2 shows a distribution channel favored by retailers such as supermarket chains, who buy in bulk direct from manufacturers and undertake the wholesaling function themselves as part of an integrated wholesaling-retailing operation. Line 3 shows a combined manufacturing-wholesaling-retailing operation, with a manufacturer combining all three operations and selling directly to the final consumer by - for example - mail order.
The most fundamental trend in distribution in recent years has been the move towards Vertical Marketing Systems (VMS), in which firms integrate the various elements of the supply chain (vertical integration) or attempt to establish effective control over distribution processes by tight contractual agreements. Franchising, for example, involves one firm assigning to another the right to supply its product or products.
One simple truth underpins the total 'cost of distribution': no matter who undertakes the various distribution tasks, the costs incurred will be included in the selling price paid by the final consumer.
* FOOD PROCESSING
* CAPITAL AND LABOR
* THE MARKET
* GOVERNMENT AND THE NATIONAL ECONOMY
* THE INTERNATIONAL ECONOMY
* BUSINESS ORGANIZATION AND ACCOUNTING
* OIL AND GAS
* MINING, MINERALS AND METALS
* IRON AND STEEL
* RUBBER AND PLASTICS
* TEXTILES
* CHEMICALS AND BIOTECHNOLOGY
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From Raw Material to the Consumer (page 4)
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p282-1
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Business Organization and Accounting (page 1)
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A meeting of business executives. The success of an executive is typically judged on his or her contribution to maximizing the company's earnings, through increasing sales or productivity, or by achieving reductions in costs or expenditure.
BBusiness Organization and Accounting (1 of 1)
Businesses are set up by people who believe they can provide goods or services that other people want. A business has to satisfy the needs of its customers and make a profit in order to meet its running costs and provide opportunities for future growth. People who start and then develop a new business have to contend with legal requirements and the challenge of organization and management. Businesses involved in the provision of goods or services are all ultimately concerned with transforming factor inputs (materials, labor, etc.) into higher-value products. Such businesses vary greatly in size and in the way they are legally constituted. They range from small one-man businesses such as local corner shops, window cleaners or painters and decorators, to giant multinational companies such as Unilever or Shell.
Types of business organization
Most small businesses start up as sole proprietorships in which the firm is owned and controlled by a single person or family. The proprietor provides the capital necessary to finance the business from his or her savings and borrowings, makes all the business decisions, and reaps all the rewards in the form of profits. On the other hand a sole proprietor bears all the business risks: the sole proprietor has unlimited liability and may have to sell his or her home and other personal possessions to pay off the business's debts if it fails and has to be wound up. Many businesses in retailing and other services, such as hairdressing or plumbing, are organized as sole proprietorships.
Some businesses are organized as partnerships, with two or more people jointly owning and controlling the business. This provides a larger pool of managers and workers for the business. Partners provide the capital for the business and share profits and losses according to a legal partnership agreement. They are all jointly responsible for any business debts and have unlimited liability for these debts. Providers of professional services such as general medical practitioners, solicitors and accountants are often organized as partnerships.
As businesses grow they generally need to attract extra capital to invest in additional factories and machinery. However, investors are reluctant to invest in a business if the failure of that business could lead to the loss of all their possessions. To facilitate the raising of capital, businesses are often formed as joint-stock companies, whereby the liability of any investor or shareholder is limited to the amount of capital that they invest. By placing a limit on the amount of potential losses, many more investors can be encouraged to subscribe capital. To warn potential creditors or lenders that their claims against such a joint-stock company will be limited in total to the amount of the company's share capital, British companies have the term 'Limited' (Ltd) or 'Public Limited Company' (PLC) after their names. Public limited companies (PLCs) can have their shares traded on the stock exchange, while shareholders in a private limited company (Ltd) can only sell their shares with the permission of existing shareholders.
Joint-stock companies raise finance by issuing shares in the company to investors. Shareholders own the company in proportion to the number of shares they own and they elect a board of directors to manage the company, headed by the chairman of the board. They may also appoint one director as managing director responsible for the day-to-day management of the company. In the UK and USA companies have a single board of directors, but several European countries, notably Germany, have two-tier boards with a supervisory board composed of shareholder and employee representatives, which in turn appoints an executive board - the latter having a management function.
Every year the directors of a company call an annual general meeting of shareholders, when they present to the shareholders their annual report on the company's performance and the company's financial statements. At this meeting shareholders elect directors for the forthcoming year. (Such elections are generally a formality, with the retiring directors being re-elected.) Shareholders are entitled to a cash dividend from the company's profits after all other outlays (production costs, overheads, tax payments, etc.) have been met. The rate of dividend per share is decided upon at the annual general meeting.
Legal requirements
To form a new joint-stock company, the company founders must first draw up a legal document called a memorandum of association, which governs the external relationship between the company and other people. The memorandum lists the name of the company, its objects (i.e. what it is in business for), the country in which the company is situated, the amount and division of share capital, and the names of the company founders. Next, the company must set out its legal constitution or articles of association, which deal with the rights and duties of shareholders and directors, and with dividends and voting rights. The company can then apply to a government official (in Britain the Company Registrar) for a certificate of incorporation, which sets up the company. At this point the company usually issues a prospectus, inviting investors to subscribe money in return for shares in the company. The shareholders provide the company's capital, and in the event of the company being wound up by voluntary liquidation or bankruptcy, they are entitled to any remaining company assets after all company debts have been discharged.
Once shareholders have subscribed for shares in a company, the capital they have thus invested becomes permanent finance for the company as long as the company remains in existence - so shareholders cannot get their money back from the company. However, shareholders in a public limited company can usually convert their investment into cash by selling their shares to someone else through an established stock exchange. Most large public limited companies have their shares listed on the major world stock exchanges in London, New York and Tokyo and smaller exchanges such as the French Bourse and the Italian Borsa. The daily buying and selling of these shares on the stock exchanges establishes market prices for them. These share prices are published each day in specialist financial newspapers such as the Financial Times in London and the Wall Street Journal in New York.
In Britain, public limited companies are obliged by law to maintain an up-to-date register of the names of shareholders and the number of shares each shareholder owns, the register being amended as shares are sold. By contrast, in the USA companies issue numbered bearer stocks and shares, which are not registered under the names of particular holders. In Britain and the USA the majority of shares in large companies are held by institutional investors such as pension funds and insurance companies, with the minority of shares being owned by small individual shareholders.
Company financial statements
All businesses are obliged by law to keep accounting records. These records serve two main purposes within a business:
1. They record a company's day-to-day financial transactions, keeping managers informed of the state of play at any time. For example, records show the value of raw materials purchased by the company and any amounts owing to suppliers for these. They also show the value of goods sold and any amounts owed by customers for these goods.
2. These records can be summarized at the end of a particular period to show how the business has fared financially. The two principal summaries are the profit-and-loss account, which measures the income earned by the business over a period, and the balance sheet, which summarizes the assets and liabilities of the business at the end of the period to show its financial position.
Accounting
In order to ensure that the financial statements presented to shareholders are accurate and meaningful, limited-liability companies are required by law to appoint independent professional accountants as auditors to scrutinize the accounts prepared by the company's own accountants and directors.
The measurement principles used in preparing company financial statements can differ from one country to another, depending upon the legal codes and taxation rules operating in different countries. In response to the development of international capital markets there has been a movement towards international and regional harmonization of accounting principles, to improve comparability of financial statements. For example, the Fourth Company Law Directive of the European Community stipulates the form and content of the annual accounts of limited-liability companies throughout Europe, while the Eighth Company Law Directive lays down minimum educational and experience requirements for auditors.
FINANCIAL STATEMENTS
PROFIT-AND-LOSS ACCOUNT
The profit-and-loss account matches the sales revenue for a particular period with the costs involved in generating that sales revenue. After all appropriate deductions have been made from sales, the residual sum of net profit for the year can be determined.
Firstly, sales revenue is compared with the cost of goods sold to determine gross margin. Cost of goods sold is not usually the same as the cost of finished goods made because firms can sell more units than they make by running down stocks of finished goods and vice versa. Consequently an adjustment has to be made for changes in the stock of finished goods, as shown in the table.
Once the gross margin on trading has been determined, indirect operating expenses such as manufacturing, selling and administration costs are deducted to arrive at Trading profit. Financing costs can then be deducted to arrive at Net profit.
BALANCE SHEET
The balance sheet shows what the business owns (assets) and what it owes (financial obligations) at the end of the trading period. The assets show how funds are used in the business, and the financial obligations show the sources of these funds.
Assets fall into two major groups:
1. Fixed assets, such as buildings and machinery, are those bought for use in the business rather than for re-sale. Generally they are retained in the business for long periods. Each year a proportion of the original cost of fixed assets will be written off against (deducted from) profits. This depreciation (reduction in value) of the assets reflects their diminishing usefulness over time. (Consequently, fixed assets are usually shown at cost less depreciation charged to date.)
2. Current assets, such as stocks of goods not yet sold and debtors (i.e. those who have not yet paid the company for goods supplied), are those that will be converted into cash in the normal course of business. They tend to turn over relatively quickly as raw materials are made up, sold and eventually paid for. Stock has to be valued accurately; its value must not be overstated as this directly affects profit. Stocks are usually valued at cost (i.e. what it cost to make them) or market value (i.e. what price could be expected for them), whichever is the lower.
Financial obligations fall into three major groups:
1. Current liabilities are obligations to pay out cash at a date in the near future. They include amounts owed by the business to trade creditors and banks.
2. Shareholders' capital employed consists of the share capital invested by the owners plus any profits plowed back into the business as reserves.
3. Long-term liabilities are those that do not have to be repaid in cash for 12 months or more. They include long-term loans, mortgages, etc.
Working capital (net current assets) is the difference between current assets and current liabilities. It shows the money tied up in financing company production and selling operations. In-creases in the volume of company trading will lead to increases in stocks and debtors, and so to an increase in working capital required to finance the business. Reductions in delays between paying for material and wages and getting cash in from customers - i.e. increasing the cash flow - will tend to reduce the working capital needed.
XYZ LTD
PROFIT-AND-LOSS ACCOUNT
YEAR ENDED 31.12.19--
Revenue from sales
of finished goods 120000
less cost of finished
goods sold:
Opening stock 6000
Cost of goods made 87000
(materials & labor)
Closing stock (9000) 84000
----- -----
Gross margin 36000
less indirect costs
or overheads:
Manufacturing:
Depreciation of
equipment 7000
Selling and
distribution
expenses:
Salesmen's salaries 4000
Transport costs 5000 9000
-----
Administration
expenses:
Office salaries,
heating, lighting,
office equipment,
etc. 4500 20500
----- -----
Trading profit 15500
Other expenses:
Loan interest 500
(interest on
money borrowed -----
from bank) Net profit 15000
-----
XYZ LTD
BALANCE SHEET FOR
YEAR ENDED 31.12.19--
Fixed Assets Cost Depreciation
Freehold land
and buildings 45000 5000 40000
Plant and
machinery 23000 13000 10000
Motor vehicles 12000 7000 5000
-----
55000
Current assets:
Stocks
- raw materials 11000
- work in
progress 4000
- finished
goods 9000 24000
-----
Debtors 11000
Cash and bank
balances 3000 38000
-----
less current liabilities:
Creditors (money
owed by the
company) 15000
Taxation owed 6000 21000
----- -----
Net current assets
(working capital) 17000
-----
Total net assets 72000
-----
Shareholders' capital
employed:
Share capital 50000
Retained profits 12000 62000
-----
Long-term
liabilities (loans)
10000
-----
72000
------
* CAPITAL AND LABOR
* THE MARKET
* GOVERNMENT AND THE NATIONAL ECONOMY
* THE INTERNATIONAL ECONOMY
* FROM RAW MATERIAL TO THE CONSUMER
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The United Nations (page 1)
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UN Disengagement Observer Force (UNDOF) in the Golan Heights. Since 1974 UNDOF have manned the area of separation between the Israelis and the Syrians on the Golan Heights.
International Organizations 1: (1 of 4)
The United Nations
The world today consists of over 190 states. Each state has a defined territory, a people or peoples and a sovereign government, with the result that humanity is represented politically by numerous individual state governments. Thus humanity lacks a world government, but it does have an international organization where virtually all states can meet around the conference table. That organization is the United Nations.
The United Nations was planned at two conferences held by the Allied powers towards the end of World War II. Earlier in the war, the Allies had agreed to create a new international organization to replace the ill-fated League of Nations, and at the Dumbarton Oaks (August-October 1944) and San Francisco (April-June 1945) conferences the Allies worked out what form this new body should take. The institution they created formally came into existence on 24 October 1945. It was called the United Nations Organization (UNO) or simply the United Nations (UN) - a name that had been devised by American president Franklin D. Roosevelt and had been adopted on 1 January 1942 by the anti-Axis nations.
Purposes and principles of the United Nations
The founding fathers of the UN gave their creation three basic purposes, each of which was seen as a counter to the aggressive policy of the Axis powers that had culminated in World War II. The founders determined that the first and principal purpose of the UN should be to maintain international peace and security. Secondly, they decreed that their creation should develop friendly relations among nations based on respect for the principle of equal rights and self-determination of peoples . . . '. Thirdly, they declared that the UN should achieve international cooperation in solving international problems of an economic, social, cultural, or humanitarian character' and promote and encourage respect for human rights and for fundamental freedoms for all without distinction as to race, sex, language, or religion . . . '. In effect, the founding fathers inserted into the UN Charter (the organization's constitution') the liberal-democratic ideals enunciated by the Allied powers - especially the USA - during the war.
Fighting over provisions at a UN refugee camp (Kurdish safe haven') on the Iraqi-Turkish border in 1991. The UN High Commissioner for Refugees aims to provide humanitarian and economic assistance for refugees and to aid their repatriation or permanent resettlement.
International Organizations 1: (2 of 4)
The United Nations
Purposes and principles of the United Nations
The founding fathers gave the UN the authority to discuss disputes, to make recommendations for the settlement of such disputes, and, if necessary, to order collective measures to enforce the peace. This authority was vested primarily in two of the Organization's principal organs, the General Assembly and the Security Council . The Assembly was empowered to discuss disputes and make recommendations on matters of international peace and security. The Security Council could go further, being entitled not only to make recommendations for the peaceful settlement of
disputes but also, if these efforts proved ineffective, to direct member-states to impose diplomatic or economic sanctions, or even take military action, against a target government or regime. The Assembly was also entitled to discuss and make recommendations on virtually any matter falling within the scope of the Charter.
All UN activities (with the exception of enforcement) were subject to the proviso that the organization should not intervene in matters which are essentially within the domestic jurisdiction' of any state. This measure was designed to safeguard the principle of state sovereignty, and has in practice been subject to differing interpretations by member-states.
The record of the United Nations
The UN's efforts to give effect to its main purpose of keeping the peace have been undermined by deep political divisions, especially those associated with the Cold War, and the General Assembly's meetings have as often reflected disunity as harmony among nations. The Security Council has similarly been hampered by a lack of unanimity among the great powers, and has rarely exercised its enforcement powers. The only exceptions are its decision to give military assistance to South Korea in June 1950 - the Soviet delegation was absent from the Council at the time - and its decisions to impose diplomatic and economic sanctions against Southern Rhodesia in 1966 and against Iraq in 1990, and an arms embargo against South Africa in 1977.
However, the UN's contribution to the maintenance of international peace and security extends beyond enforcement. The Security Council has mounted several peacekeeping' operations, in which forces drawn from member-states have acted as buffers between warring states or factions, at the request of the government(s) concerned, so as to make a resumption of hostilities less likely. UN peacekeeping forces were deployed to many places during the Cold War, including Kashmir (from 1949), Yemen (1963-64), Cyprus (from 1964), and the Golan Heights (from 1974).
The General Assembly's debates, though often degenerating into exchanges of propaganda, have at least provided a forum where states can let off steam'. Successive Secretary Generals have played a significant part in arbitrating international disputes, and the International Court of Justice has also contributed, providing an opportunity for states to take their disputes to legal settlement.
With the general improvement in relations between the Security Council's permanent members in the late 1980s, and particularly after the end of the Cold War (1990), the UN's efforts to achieve world peace and security were given renewed impetus. Indeed, the UN had now found an increased willingness on the part of member states to make use of its facilities for resolving disputes, notably the Security Council and the offices of the Secretary-General. The Iran-Iraq War came to an end in 1988 following a Security Council resolution devised by the Council's permanent members; Soviet forces withdrew from Afghanistan in 1988-89 under a plan negotiated by the Secretary-General; and South Africa gave independence to Namibia in 1990 within a settlement secured by the Council and the Secretary-General. Moreover, the improved relations between the great powers meant that the Security Council was able to make more use of its enforcement powers against regimes it deemed to have threatened the peace, or committed acts of aggression. The most notable examples of this were the Council's decisions to impose sanctions and to authorize the use of force against Iraq following the latter's invasion of Kuwait in August 1990, and to impose sanctions against Serbia-Montenegro (1992- ).
The UN also greatly expanded its peacekeeping' role, mounting more peacekeeping operations in the late 1980s and early 1990s than in the previous four decades. It extended the scope of such operations to include the supervision of elections, the provision of humanitarian relief and even administration, as well as the more traditional observer and interposition functions. Most of these operations were effective. Some, such as those in Bosnia-Herzegovina (1992- ) and Somalia (1992-93), were bedevilled by a lack of cooperation on the part of some local elements, with the result that these operations took on the character not only of peacekeeping (traditionally based on local consent) but also, to an extent, of enforcement.
The UN can also boast of some successes in the pursuance of its other basic purposes. It has helped to accelerate the progress towards self-government of the peoples of former colonies and has done much to make the private cruelties of states a matter for the whole international community. It has also endeavored to alleviate economic, social, educational, health and related shortcomings in the Third World, particularly through specialized agencies such as the WHO and UNICEF. However, the UN has often been criticized for denouncing violations of human rights in some states while condoning such violations in others, and for allowing the specialized agencies to waste large proportions of their budgets on unnecessary
bureaucracy, to the detriment of the intended recipients.
The UN's overall record, therefore, has been uneven. The organization has not lived up to the ideals of the founding fathers, but it has not failed entirely, and has proved its usefulness in many conflicts. The UN is a free association of states based upon the principle of state sovereignty. In other words the UN can only do as much - or as little - as its member-states allow it to do.
* INTERNATIONAL ORGANIZATIONS 2
* ARMAMENT AND DISARMAMENT
* CIVIL AND HUMAN RIGHTS
* THE THIRD WORLD AND THE DEVELOPED WORLD
* DECOLONIZATION
* THE COLD WAR
* THE MIDDLE EAST
Outline
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The United Nations (page 3)
ftsTitle
The Security Council, the most powerful organ of the UN, meets to
discuss peace. In 1993 Germany and Japan made representations to become permanent members of the Council.
International Organizations 1: (3 of 4)
The United Nations
Membership
According to its Charter, applicants for membership of the UN have to satisfy the Security Council and a two-thirds majority of the General Assembly that they are peace-loving states, accept the obligations of the UN Charter, and are able and willing to carry out these obligations. In practice, the UN has granted applicants membership almost as of right, with the result that the organization has grown from an initial complement of 51 member-states to 100 by the end of 1960 and 185 by 1994. Most of these new members are former colonial or dependent territories.
The Charter also allows for the suspension or expulsion of any member-state that has persistently violated the principles of the organization. The UN has not yet taken such action.
In 1971 the UN decided to replace the Republic of China (Taiwan) with the People's Republic of China as the representative of the Chinese people. Since then, other than Taiwan, the only states without UN membership are Switzerland, which maintains its strict interpretation of neutrality, the Vatican, and a number of micro-states in the Pacific.
The UN has five principal organs. These are listed below, together with an outline of their size and role. All are based in New York, with the exception of the International Court of Justice, which is based in The Hague.
THE GENERAL ASSEMBLY
This is composed of all member-states and can discuss anything within the scope of the Charter. It takes decisions by a qualified majority (two thirds) of those present on important' questions, and by a simple majority on other issues, each member having one vote.
THE SECURITY COUNCIL
This is the main organ for maintaining international peace and security. It has 5 permanent members - China, France, Russia, the UK and the USA, states that constituted the great powers' at the end of World War II - and 10 other seats taken by other member-states in turn. Decisions are reached through 9 out of 15 members voting for a measure. However, any one of the permanent members can invalidate a decision by exercising its right of veto. This system therefore institutionalizes the world authority of the great powers.
THE ECONOMIC AND SOCIAL
COUNCIL
This has 54 members. It has acted as a coordinating body for the numerous specialized agencies created by the UN with the aim of achieving international cooperation in the economic, social and related fields.
THE INTERNATIONAL COURT OF
JUSTICE
This is the UN's principal judicial organ, available to offer legal rulings on any cases that are brought before it.
THE SECRETARIAT
This acts as a sort of international civil service. Its head is the Secretary General, who combines the task of being the organization's chief administrative officer with that of being an international mediator. The post has had six incumbents so far:
Trygve Lie (Norway) 1946-53
Dag Hammarskjold (Sweden) 1953-61
U Thant (Burma) 1961-72
Kurt Waldheim (Austria) 1972-81
Javier Perez de Cuellar (Peru) 1982-92
Boutros Boutros Ghali (Egypt) 1992-
THE SPECIALIZED AGENCIES
These are intergovernmental agencies related to the UN and attached to it:
International Labor Organization (ILO)
Food and Agriculture Organization (FAO)
United Nations Educational, Scientific and
Cultural Organization (UNESCO)
World Health Organization (WHO)
International Bank for Reconstruction and
Development (IBRD, or World Bank)
International Development Association (IDA)
International Finance Corporation (IFC)
International Monetary Fund (IMF)
International Civil Aviation Organization (ICAO)
Universal Postal Union (UPU)
International Telecommunications Union (ITU)
World Meteorological Organization (WMO)
International Maritime Organization (IMO)
World Intellectual Property Organization (WIPO)
International Fund for Agricultural Development (IFAD)
Industrial Development Organization (UNIDO)
In addition to these agencies, which report to the Economic and Social Council, the International Atomic Energy Agency (IAEA) reports to the General Assembly and, as appropriate, to the Security Council.
Among the subsidiary organs set up by the UN are the following:
United Nations High Commissioner for Refugees (UNHCR)
United Nations International Children's Emergency Fund (UNICEF)
United Nations Relief and Works Agency (UNRWA)
United Nations Development Program (UNDP)
United Nations Population Fund (UNFPA)
CAPTION
Fighting over provisions at a UN refugee camp (Kurdish safe haven') on the Iraqi-Turkish border in 1991. The UN High Commissioner for Refugees aims to provide humanitarian and economic assistance for refugees and to aid their repatriation or permanent resettlement.
The Security Council, the most powerful organ of the UN, meets to
discuss peace. In 1993 Germany and Japan made representations to become permanent members of the Council.
UN Disengagement Observer Force (UNDOF) in the Golan Heights. Since 1974 UNDOF have manned the area of separation between the Israelis and the Syrians on the Golan Heights.
* INTERNATIONAL ORGANIZATIONS 2
* ARMAMENT AND DISARMAMENT
* CIVIL AND HUMAN RIGHTS
* THE THIRD WORLD AND THE DEVELOPED WORLD
* DECOLONIZATION
* THE COLD WAR
* THE MIDDLE EAST
Picture
Outline
Encyclopedia
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UN troops march down a street in Croatia
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p286-1
International Organizations 2 (1 of 2)
International Organizations 2
The growth in the number and functions of all types of international organizations since 1945 has been very marked - so much so that they have sometimes been seen as superseding the state, or indeed as changing the whole character of international relations. The numerous bodies that form parts of the United Nations system have a global membership and role, but these are many other international organizations, some very important, that have a more limited membership, bringing together groups of states with a common interest - whether in matters of economics, security, shared language and culture, political orientation, or protection of the environment.
European and transatlantic organizations
Representatives of many European states attended a Congress of Europe in 1948, which resulted in the creation of the Council of Europe in May 1949. The Council of Europe aims to foster greater unity between member-states, and their economic and social progress. One of the Council's major achievements was the establishment in 1950 of the European Convention for the Protection of Human Rights. The majority of European states are members and it is the largest organization of the European democracies, although it has not taken on supra-national powers.
By contrast, the establishment of the European Coal and Steel Community (ECSC) by the Treaty of Paris of March 1951 paved the way for a measure of economic and political integration in Europe. Belgium, France, Italy, Luxembourg, the Netherlands and West Germany - the founder members of the ECSC - went on to create the European Economic Community (EEC or Common Market) and the European Atomic Energy Authority (EAEA or EURATOM). The EEC (founded under the Treaty of Rome in 1957) aimed to abolish import and export duties on goods in general, and EURATOM to promote a common effort in the development of nuclear energy for peaceful purposes. The three bodies were distinct entities until 1967 when - for practical purposes - they merged their executives and decision-making bodies into a single European Community (EC).
The Six' were joined in these organizations by Denmark, Ireland and the UK in 1973, by Greece in 1981, by Spain and Portugal in 1986, and by Austria, Finland and Sweden in 1995. These 15 states form a community whose 370 million people provide a market larger than the USA, Russia or Japan. The enlarged EC - in accordance with the stated intention of the Rome Treaty of an ever closer union' - moved towards economic integration (the single market') in 1993, allowing free movement of capital, labor, goods and services within the Community. At the same time, the European Union (EU) came into being. The European Union has not replaced the European Community, which forms one of the three pillars' that comprise the EU. (The other two pillars' - concerning foreign and security matters and cooperation in a wide variety of areas such as immigration, political asylum and law enforcement - are inter-governmental bodies representing members.)
The Union looks set to expand again by 2000 with applications for membership from Malta, Cyprus, Poland, Hungary, the Czech Republic and Slovakia. Iceland, Norway and Liechtenstein, are creating a single European trading area with the EU for goods, services, capital and labor - the European Economic Area (EEA).
All the members of the EU (plus Iceland, Norway and Switzerland) also belong to the Organization for Economic Cooperation and Development (OECD). The organization's predecessor began life in 1948 to further European economic recovery after World War II, using aid supplied from the USA by the Marshall Plan. It became the OECD in 1961, when Canada and the USA joined and economic development was added to its original aim of economic coordination. Since 1961, Australia, Canada, Finland, Japan, Mexico, New Zealand and Turkey have also joined the OECD. In effect, the OECD is the Western world's vehicle for harmonizing economic and development policies.
In 1992 the newly-democratic Poland, the Czech Republic, Slovakia and Hungary signed the Central European Free Trade Agreement (CEFTA) under which they agreed to set up a free trade area between them by 2001.
The West's main military alliance is the North Atlantic Treaty Organization (NATO). In 1948 Belgium, France, Luxembourg, the Netherlands and Britain had agreed to help each other in the event of an armed attack. These five signatories to the Brussels Treaty were joined in 1949 by a further seven states - the USA, Canada, Denmark, Norway, Iceland, Italy and Portugal - as signatories to the North Atlantic Treaty, which established NATO. These 12 states agreed that an attack against any of them would be regarded as an attack against all, and that if such an attack occurred they would take appropriate measures, including armed force if necessary, to assist the party attacked. The original 12 were joined by Greece and Turkey (1952), West Germany (1955) and Spain (1982). French forces were withdrawn from NATO's integrated military structure by President de Gaulle (1966). NATO was principally set up to defend the West against the perceived military threat of the Eastern Bloc countries, embodied in the Warsaw Pact. The latter's dissolution in 1991 has obliged NATO to re-examine its role. In 1994 NATO established a Partnership for Peace (PFP), which provides former Warsaw Pact members, CIS members and neutral states with an association with NATO. PFP is flexible, offering each of its 18 partners its own relationship with NATO.
The West European Union (WEU) - which was founded in 1955 and reactivated in 1984 - seeks to harmonize the security and defense of Western European countries. The WEU - which has 10 members and eight associates or observers - has virtually assumed the role of the EU's defense arm.
The aims of the Organization on Security and Cooperation in Europe (OSCE), established in 1975 by a security conference held in Helsinki, Finland, were formulated by the Charter of Paris (1990), which has been described as the formal end of the Cold War. Members affirm an adherence to democracy and human rights, and a commitment to settle disputes by peaceful means. Its 53 members are North American, European and former Soviet states.
* TRADE
* THE UNITED NATIONS
* ARMAMENT AND DISARMAMENT
* CIVIL AND HUMAN RIGHTS
* THE THIRD WORLD AND THE DEVELOPED WORLD
* DECOLONIZATION
* THE COLD WAR
* THE COLD WAR AND BEYOND
* THE MIDDLE EAST
* COUNTRIES OF THE WORLD
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President Yeltsin and the leaders of the CIS member countries during negotiations in April 1994. The CIS, established following the dissolution of the Soviet Union in 1991, is only a very loose association of independent states. Its aims of unitary military control and the creation of a single economic space' have failed largely because of resistance to Moscow's influence. However, economic and geopolitical realities have more recently forced some of the former Soviet republics to cooperate with Russia.
International Organizations 2 (2 of 2)
Other regional organizations
In 1945 the League of Arab States or Arab League was formed to promote economic and cultural links, and to minimize conflict between Arab states. The League now includes all Arab states as well as the Palestine Liberation Organization, which the League regards as the representative of a legitimate state.
Soon afterwards came the formation of the Organization of American States (OAS), set up in 1948 to promote solidarity among the states of the Americas. Its 35 members include the USA and Canada as well as Latin American and Caribbean countries.
In 1963, 32 African states established the Organization of African Unity (OAU), chief amongst whose objectives were the eradication of colonialism and the promotion of economic and political cooperation between member-states. Since its founding, the OAU has grown to include all the African states.
Other regional bodies created by Third World states include the Association of South East Asian Nations (ASEAN), established by Indonesia, Malaysia, the Philippines, Singapore and Thailand in 1967 to promote their mutual economic development, and the Caribbean Community (CARICOM), a West Indian common market that came into existence in 1973. The Economic Community of West African States (ECOWAS) was founded in 1975 to promote trade and cooperation between member-states. In 1990 an ECOWAS force intervened in an attempt to stop the civil war in Liberia.
Asia-Pacific Economic Cooperation (Apec) was formed in 1993 to encourage trade between those countries bordering the Pacific Ocean. Its 18 members have 38% of the world's population, are responsible for 50% of the world's economic production and 41% of the world's trade. Trade barriers are to be removed between industrialized members by 2010 and developing nations by 2020. Apec comprises Australia, Brunei, Canada, Chile, China, Hong Kong, Indonesia, Japan, Malaysia, Mexico, New Zealand, Papua New Guinea, the Philippines, Singapore, South Korea, Taiwan, Thailand, and the USA.
The Latin America Free Trade Area was replaced by the Asociacin Latinoamericana de Integracin (ALADI) in 1980. Like its predecessor it aims to encourage trade and remove tariffs between member-states, which include Mexico and most South American states. A similar free-trade area - with a common external tariff - was established in northern and eastern South America with the establishment of the Andean Pact in 1992. It was signed by Bolivia, Colombia, Ecuador, Peru and Venezuela. Mercosur (Mercado del Sur - Market of the South) - which came into being in 1995 - groups Argentina, Brazil, Paraguay and Uruguay in a free market of goods, services and labor. Canada, Mexico and the USA signed the North American Free Trade Agreement (NAFTA) in 1992 under which they agreed to eliminate tariffs, quotas and import licenses between member-states.
Following the dissolution of the USSR in December 1991, the former Soviet republics - except Estonia, Latvia and Lithuania - formed the Commonwealth of Independent States (CIS). The CIS maintains very few elements of the economic, military and political coordination that existed within the former USSR.
Producer cartels
Producers of particular commodities have formed bodies to protect their mutual economic and commercial interests. The best-known of such organizations is OPEC - the Organization of Petroleum Exporting Countries - set up to safeguard the collective interests of Third World petroleum-exporting states. This oil cartel sprang into world prominence during the 1973 Arab-Israeli War, when members restricted the supply and quadrupled the price of their oil exports, causing serious economic problems for the consumer nations of the West. OPEC's 12 members are Algeria, Gabon, Indonesia, Iran, Iraq, Kuwait, Libya, Nigeria, Qatar, Saudi Arabia, the United Arab Emirates and Venezuela. Ecuador withdrew in 1992.
CONSTITUENT BODIES OF THE EUROPEAN COMMUNITY
The EC's equivalent of an executive body is the Council of Ministers. Meetings of the Council are attended by government ministers with responsibility for the issue under consideration. These ministers represent national interests, but are supposed to arrive at unanimous decisions. In addition, heads of government meet regularly to discuss EC policy matters and foreign affairs. The Council acts mainly on legislative proposals provided by the European Commission, whose members are duty-bound to act in the interests of the Community as a whole rather than those of individual countries. The Commission is based in Brussels and has 20 members, two appointed by France, Italy, Spain, the UK and Germany, and one by the other member-states. They are appointed by the member governments for a 4-year renewable term.
The Commission is answerable to the European Parliament, which can vote the former out of office. Based in Strasbourg, the Parliament has 626 members elected to serve for five-year periods. These members have been directly elected by universal adult suffrage since 1979. The allocation of seats per state varies according to population ratios. Germany has 99 members, France, Italy and the UK 87, Spain 64, Netherlands 31, Belgium, Greece and Portugal 25, Sweden 22, Austria 21, Finland and Denmark 16, Ireland 15 and Luxembourg 6. The Parliament is split along party lines similar to those in the national parliaments of member-states.
The European Court of Justice - based in Luxembourg - consists of independent judges, whose task is to settle disputes arising out of the application of Community Law.
NON-REGIONAL ORGANIZATIONS
The Non-aligned Movement, dedicated to the principles of non-alignment, peaceful co-existence and national self-determination, was founded in 1961. Over 100 countries, most of them African or Asian, attended its most recent conferences. The Commonwealth is an association of sovereign states that are, or have been at some time, ruled by the UK. However, from being a club' of Western states, the Commonwealth has been transformed by an influx of newly independent former British colonies in Africa, Asia and the Caribbean into a predominantly Third World association.
* TRADE
* THE UNITED NATIONS
* ARMAMENT AND DISARMAMENT
* CIVIL AND HUMAN RIGHTS
* THE THIRD WORLD AND THE DEVELOPED WORLD
* DECOLONIZATION
* THE COLD WAR
* THE COLD WAR AND BEYOND
* THE MIDDLE EAST
* COUNTRIES OF THE WORLD
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Armament and Disarmament (page 1)
ftsTitle
A hydrogen bomb explosion on Bikini Atoll in the Pacific in 1952. Hydrogen bombs are far more powerful than atomic bombs and a single H-bomb can obliterate a large city. No H-bomb has so far been used in warfare, although they have been tested extensively by the USA, the former USSR, China, France, and the UK.
Nuclear Armament and Disarmament (1 of 4)
On 16th July 1945 scientists in the USA, working on the Manhattan Project, successfully tested the world's first atomic device, at Alamogordo in the New Mexico desert. The fruits of more than three years of intensive research, it was an awesome spectacle, producing an explosion equivalent to thousands of tons (kilotons) of conventional TNT. President Harry Truman had no hesitation in using the new weapon against the Japanese. On 6 August a B-29 Superfortress bomber dropped an atomic bomb on Hiroshima, killing some 78000 people instantaneously; three days later Nagasaki was hit, killing a further 35000. These attacks hastened the Japanese surrender and the end of World War II. The atomic age had dawned.
These early atom bombs were based on the theory that if the atoms of a heavy element such as uranium were bombarded with neutrons, they would split and create a chain reaction - nuclear fission - releasing an enormous burst of energy. Heat, blast and a searing flash of light capable of imposing widespread devastation would result. Other countries sought to equal the US achievement. In 1949 the USSR test-exploded a device, followed in 1952 by the UK. France joined the atomic club' in 1960 and China in 1964. By then nuclear capability had been taken further with the advent of the thermonuclear (hydrogen) bomb, first tested by the USA in 1952. In the thermonuclear bomb the hydrogen nuclei of deuterium and tritium are fused together - nuclear fusion - under the pressure of a fission explosion to release the equivalent of millions of tons (megatons) of TNT. Such an explosion, even if confined to one megaton, would blind people up to 160 km (100 mi) away and devastate anything within 6 km (3.75 mi).
Minuteman III (ICBM) missiles were put in place in the US to offset the threat from Soviet missiles during the cold war.
Nuclear Armament and Disarmament (2 of 4)
Nuclear deterrence
No one has used a thermonuclear device in anger, for possession of such weapons forced a change of attitude towards war. Traditionally force had been used to gain a political objective, often after all other methods of persuasion had failed, but now the results of such a policy would be so damaging as to be self-defeating, especially if the opponent could also deliver nuclear weapons. Instead, the nuclear powers began to use their weapons to deter war, threatening nuclear attack to force an opponent to reconsider a particular course of action. In the early years of the atomic age this was a one-way process, as the USA had a monopoly of capability and delivery means, but as the USSR caught up in the 1960s a rough parity between the superpowers emerged.
This led to the development of the theory of MAD (mutual assured destruction), in which each side had the ability to absorb a first-strike surprise attack while retaining sufficient weapons to hit back in a retaliatory second strike of devastating potential. But MAD depended on the maintenance of a balance of capability, for if one side had gained the means to carry out a devastating first strike that deprived the other of its retaliatory capability, or developed defensive systems that left it substantially protected against attack, deterrence would have failed. Both superpowers strove to improve the accuracy of their warheads, making them capable of seeking out and destroying more and more targets in a nuclear strike, and both tried constantly to develop ways of tracking enemy missile-carrying submarines (the mainstay of second-strike forces) so that they could be destroyed in the early stages of a war.
Star Wars
If either side developed a substantial defense against incoming missiles or warheads, the balance of MAD would disappear. In the 1960s both superpowers experimented with ABMs (anti-ballistic missiles) - rockets that could intercept and destroy incoming weapons - but this proved costly. Then, in March 1983, President Ronald Reagan announced his decision to fund a space-based defensive system for the USA, known officially as SDI (the Strategic Defense Initiative) but more popularly as Star Wars'. In its most ambitious form - centered upon an elaborate system of laser and charged-particle-beam weapons in space, ready to destroy an incoming nuclear strike - SDI was likely to be ruinously expensive, and much less than 100% effective. However, the announcement did alarm the Soviets, who could not afford to match SDI. Their attempts to do so in the mid-1980s contributed to the economic chaos that brought Mikhail Gorbachov to power.
* ATOMS AND SUBATOMIC PARTICLES
* WORLD WAR II
* THE COLD WAR
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Minuteman III (ICBM)
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Armament and Disarmament (page 3)
ftsTitle
Russian nuclear missiles being prepared for destruction in 1994. The missiles are finally assigned to oblivion at a nearby liquidation base. The collapse of the Soviet Union and the end of the Cold War helped speed up the disarmament process. However, it was followed by fears that Soviet nuclear technology may be sold abroad, particularly to the Middle East.
Nuclear Armament and Disarmament (3 of 4)
Arms control and disarmament
There was, of course, an alternative approach - to negotiate mutual disarmament. Since the 1950s there has been pressure from disarmament groups - such as CND (the Campaign for Nuclear Disarmament) in Britain - for unilateral nuclear disarmament, in which one side gives up its nuclear weapons in the hope that the other will follow. But the chances of this happening in a distrustful world affected by the Cold War were poor. Instead, the superpowers approached the problem through arms control, designed to create and maintain the central balance of MAD. In the late 1960s, as ABM technology threatened the balance, the Americans and Soviets met to discuss control. In 1972 an ABM Treaty, limiting deployment to two systems only in each superpower homeland, was signed as part of the SALT I (Strategic Arms Limitation Talks) package. This was refined at Vladivostok in 1974 to impose ceilings' on the numbers of nuclear delivery vehicles deployed by each side. The process was taken a stage further by SALT II in 1979, when the ceilings were reduced, but the Soviet invasion of Afghanistan in December 1979 prevented ratification by the US Senate.
Further attempts at arms control failed as the superpowers entered the New Cold War' of the early 1980s. The follow-up to SALT, known as START (Strategic Arms Reduction Talks), made slow progress. However, both superpowers agreed in December 1987 to abolish land-based INF (intermediate nuclear forces, targeted against points in Europe). This, together with a growing realization that constant updating of nuclear systems was excessively expensive, gave a boost to START. In July 1991 a treaty - START I - was signed to cut strategic arsenals to 6000 weapons on each side by 1998. A few months later Presidents Bush and Gorbachov announced the elimination of all land-based tactical missiles and nuclear artillery shells, and NATO decided to scrap up to 50% of its nuclear bombs unilaterally. Although further superpower progress was delayed by the break-up of the Soviet Union, START II was signed in January 1993, reducing the stockpiles of nuclear warheads to 3500 on each side.
Denuclearization and Non-proliferation
The problems, however, were by no means over. When the Soviet Union collapsed in December 1991, strategic nuclear weapons were left not only in Russia but also in Belarus, Ukraine and Kazakhstan. In May 1993 a summit was held in Lisbon to put pressure on the former Soviet republics to abide by START I and to sign the Non-Proliferation Treaty (NPT) of 1968. Belarus and Kazakhstan complied, but the Ukrainians tried to impose conditions. In January 1994 an agreement was signed between the USA, Russia and Ukraine whereby the weapons would be dismantled in return for US economic aid, but growing Ukrainian nationalism threatened to delay the process. Meanwhile, allegations were made that Kazakhstan was selling nuclear material to foreign powers, notably in the Middle East.
This raised new fears of proliferation - the spread of nuclear-weapons technology to hitherto non-nuclear powers. With the end of the Cold War, new impetus was given to the NPT, but proliferation remained a problem. In the aftermath of the Gulf War of 1991, Iraq's nuclear capability was forcibly dismantled, and in 1993 South Africa announced that it had destroyed its small nuclear stockpile. However, in 1993-94 international pressure had to be exerted on North Korea when it threatened to withdraw from the NPT, indicating that any process of denuclearization and non-proliferation was never going to be easy.
An anti-nuclear protest at a military base in England in 1982. The British Campaign for Nuclear Disarmament (CND), along with other anti-nuclear groups in other Western countries, mobilized public opinion in favor of the unilateral abandonment of nuclear weapons. Despite the end of the Cold War and the reduction in nuclear arsenals, anti-nuclear campaigners still fight for the removal of all nuclear weapons.
Nuclear Armament and Disarmament (4 of 4)
Chemical and biological weapons
Of equal concern to world security has been the spread of chemical and biological weapons, often described as the poor man's atomic bomb'. Poison gases come in two forms: choking gases such as phosgene, which attack the lungs and restrict breathing; and blistering gases such as mustard gas, which cause horrific burns. Nerve gases - such as tabun and sarin - impair muscle control, making breathing impossible, while biological weapons carry the spores of deadly diseases such as plague or anthrax. Constituent parts of these weapons are relatively easy to manufacture and store in secret; delivery is effected by missiles or bombs. The Iraqis used gas against the Kurds at Halabja in March 1988, and during the Gulf War of 1991 it was feared that Saddam Hussein would use them against Saudi Arabia and Israel.
Attempts have been made to control such weapons. In 1972 an international convention banned biological devices, but chemical weapons have proved more difficult to define or identify. However, in the aftermath of the Gulf War, strenuous efforts were made to impose international restraint, and on 13 January 1993 the CWC (Chemical Weapons Convention) was opened for signature in Paris. By late 1994, 154 states had signed, agreeing to ban all possession, transfer or production of chemical weapons in the future. This still has to be ratified by the majority of signatories, but, together with agreements between the major powers to dismantle their biological weapons stockpiles, it has led to cautious optimism.
Conventional weapons
The final area of control and disarmament concerned conventional (non-nuclear) weapons belonging to NATO and the Warsaw Pact. Early attempts to impose cuts - Mutual and Balanced Force Reduction (MBFR) - made little progress. But when they were replaced by the Conventional Forces in Europe (CFE) talks in 1989, coinciding with the weakening of the Soviet bloc, an agreement soon emerged. Signed on 19 November 1990, the CFE Treaty laid down ceilings on the numbers of tanks, artillery pieces, aircraft and helicopters deployed by the two sides. In July 1992 a second agreement - CFE 1A - extended the process to manpower levels, although by then the collapse of the Warsaw Pact had rendered many aspects of the negotiations redundant. However, as the CFE had been conducted under the auspices of the Conference on Security and Cooperation in Europe, it proved useful in creating trust and stability.
* ATOMS AND SUBATOMIC PARTICLES
* WORLD WAR II
* THE COLD WAR
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Civil and Human Rights (page 1)
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The Declaration of the Rights of Man and of the Citizen was drafted in 1789 and incorporated as the preface to the French constitution in 1791. Influenced by the American Declaration of Independence of 1776, the ideas of the Enlightenment, and the English Bill of Rights of 1689, the Declaration asserted the equality of all men before the law, and their right to freedom of speech and ownership of property.
Civil and Human Rights (1 of 3)
The concepts of civil and human rights are closely linked with ideas of justice - both as ideals towards which laws should strive, and as limits on what such laws can require of individuals. Human rights are often thought of as being divine or supernatural in origin. While much writing on human rights is based on Western European traditions, other traditions such as those of Confucianism, Buddhism, Hinduism, and Islam have strong doctrines of what law should be.
Although the terms 'human rights', 'civil rights' and 'civil liberties' are often used interchangeably, there are differences in emphasis. 'Human rights' is used mostly in international law to mean the rights to which all human beings are entitled. These are often divided into 'civil and political rights' (such as the right to free speech and to vote) which governments should not restrict, and 'economic, social and cultural rights' (such as the right to health care and education) which governments should strive to provide. 'Civil rights' and 'civil liberties' are expressions used more often to describe freedoms protected by the laws of a particular country.
Historical origins
In the West, the development of the concept of human rights can be traced to the writings of Plato and other Greek and Roman philosophers, but they also have a religious foundation in the Judaeo-Christian traditions. Thomas Aquinas developed a religious theory of 'natural law' based on Christian principles against which secular law - the actual law of the state - was to be measured. In the 17th and 18th centuries the philosophers of the Enlightenment attempted to develop theories of natural law that could be discovered by the exercise of reason rather than by divine revelation. Writers such as Locke, Rousseau and Paine put forward theories of government based on the rights of individuals that were subordinated only in degrees to the governmental power to be exercised for the general welfare.
The idea that government derived its authority from the consent of the governed rather than from divine authority carried with it the possibility that such consent could be withdrawn. It was a revolutionary idea and was used to justify the American and French revolutions at the end of the 18th century. The English revolution of a century before had been influenced by such ideas, but not to the same degree. Three important milestones in the establishing of basic rights in Britain were the Magna Carta of 1215, a charter defining certain limitations on royal power; the Habeas Corpus Act of 1679, a law requiring that a prisoner be brought before a court to determine whether his detention is lawful; and the Bill of Rights of 1689. But none of these has the same fundamental status as the Declaration of the Rights of Man in France or the Bill of Rights in the USA.
Although doctrines of human rights served as the bases for revolutions in France and America, the notion that human rights should be enshrined as articles of international law developed only gradually during the 19th century. The anti-slavery movement was one example of a growing conviction that human beings have basic rights according to a higher law to which all nations are subject.
From around the middle of the 19th century many states began to agree that prisoners of war and non-combatants had rights that other states were bound to respect. The Geneva Conventions, a series of treaties signed by many countries between 1864 and 1949, provided for humane treatment of civilians in wartime, the protection of sick and wounded soldiers, and the fair treatment of prisoners of war. The emblem adopted by the Geneva Convention of 1864 lent its name to the first international body formed to observe and encourage respect for such rights. Founded in 1863, the Red Cross (known as the Red Crescent in Islamic countries) now has over 100 national societies and its work has expanded to include aid to refugees and disaster relief.
Human rights in the 20th century
The systematic atrocities of World War II inspired the United Nations to adopt the Universal Declaration of Human Rights in 1948. The rights set out in the declaration are repeated with variations and extensions in other international human-rights documents such as the European Convention on Human Rights, The Inter-American Convention on Human Rights and the African Charter on Human and People's Rights. They include rights of personal security against arbitrary state treatment; rights of conscience; rights of fair trial; rights to privacy and a family; political rights; economic rights; and rights of equality.
Since the Universal Declaration, emphasis has been laid on the difference between civil and political rights on the one hand, and economic, social and cultural rights on the other. Civil and political rights, such as freedom of expression and the right to travel, are essentially limits on what the state can do to individuals. In this sense, the right to life is the right not to be killed by the state. Economic, social and cultural rights, such as the right to education, housing or health care, are more likely to require action on the part of the state. But the differences between them are not clear-cut: the right to life, for example, can also mean the right to be protected from ill-health by the state through access to food and health care. This distinction is expressed in the two United Nations documents adopted to give force to the Universal Declaration: the International Covenant on Civil and Political Rights and the International Covenant on Economic, Social and Cultural Rights. It is also reflected in regional documents such as the European Social Charter.
The implementation of the rights declared can be achieved through governmental and non-governmental methods. Governments working together have established international bodies, such as the Human Rights Commission and the Human Rights Committee of the United Nations. Such bodies consider reports from countries about their development and promotion of human rights, and investigate reports of human rights violations by particular states.
Traditional international law did not recognize individuals, and was principally concerned with disputes between nations. Complaints by one state about another's violations of human rights could be used for political ends, or not publicized at all if the states had a common interest in concealing such violations. The European Convention on Human Rights was the first to allow individuals to complain directly to an international body about human rights violations perpetrated by particular countries. Other systems have begun to provide for similar complaints.
Non-governmental organizations have been important in the promotion of human rights in the 20th century. Although organizations such as the Red Cross and Amnesty International (which works for the freeing of political prisoners and other prisoners of conscience) may be consulted by international governmental bodies, they owe much of their influence to their independence of governments. They have no legal authority, however, and their influence is based almost entirely on careful documentation and publicizing of human-rights abuses.
April 30th, 1992: the streets of Los Angeles erupted in a frenzy of violence and rioting. "No justice, no peace" was the rallying cry for the rioters: a reference to the lack of justice for Rodney King, a man beaten by the police.
Civil and Human Rights (2 of 3)
Human and civil rights
Human rights in particular countries are often called civil rights or civil liberties. In the USA and many other countries they are enshrined as doctrines in written constitutions and have a higher status than ordinary legislation. Measuring laws against such fundamental principles may be achieved in several ways: by advice to the legislature while it is making law, or by cases brought to challenge laws that have been enacted (including many of the cases brought before the US Supreme Court). The interpretation of such rights in particular countries may be influenced by interpretations in other countries or by international bodies.
Britain has no written constitution or bill of rights - the 1689 Bill was largely concerned with restricting royal powers. Many basic rights, such as freedom of speech, are not protected by statute, but are rights in common law, whose continued existence is dependent on the will of Parliament. In recent years, however, legislation has been passed to protect the rights of certain minorities, notably the Race Relations Act (1968), which prohibits discrimination on grounds of race, and the Sex Discrimination Act (1975).
* THE LAW: CRIMINAL AND CIVIL
* GOVERNMENT AND THE PEOPLE
* POLITICAL THEORIES
* INTERNATIONAL ORGANIZATIONS
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Los Angeles riots
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Civil and Human Rights (page 3)
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Gay rights supporters march through the streets of Washington, DC. Gay rights is one of the major civil rights struggles in the USA. Homosexuals claim the same rights as heterosexuals in areas such as housing and employment, which they are entitled to by law but do not always receive in practice.
Civil and Human Rights (3 of 3)
There are still many countries whose citizens are denied basic human rights. In South Africa, under the apartheid system, the dominant white minority denies the vote to the majority Black population and limits its freedom of movement. Communist countries such as the Soviet Union have traditionally stressed the importance of social rights, such as the right to work, but often at the expense of human rights, such as freedom of speech.
The implementation of human rights in national and international law has been one of the most important developments in law and government in the 20th century. Although largely divorced from particular religions, it still represents a form of law that is higher than ordinary law. Human rights are both limits on government, in specifying what may not be done, and goals towards which laws should be directed.
TWO 20TH-CENTURY CIVIL RIGHTS MOVEMENTS
Despite the guarantee of full citizenship rights for Blacks contained in the 13th and 14th amendments to the US Constitution, laws passed in the Southern states of the USA in the 1890s reduced Blacks in these states to second-class citizens and established racially segregated public facilities.
In December 1955 a campaign to desegregate the bus service in Montgomery, Alabama, was organized by a charismatic young Black Baptist minister, Martin Luther King (1929-68). Its success gave impetus to a mass protest movement to end segregation and inequality in the Southern states with King at its head. Using non-violent methods such as sit-ins, boycotts and protest marches, the movement spread across the Southern states, forcing desegregation of public transport, shops, cinemas and libraries, and eventually gaining the support of the administration of President John F. Kennedy. The campaign culminated in the passing by Congress of the 1964 Civil Rights Act and the 1965 Voting Act, outlawing discrimination in public housing, schools, employment and voting on grounds of race, color or religion.
After King's assassination in 1968, the movement fragmented somewhat, and more militant organizations briefly came to the fore. These organizations included the Black Panthers, who advocated violent protest and armed self-protection by Blacks.
In Northern Ireland, a predominantly Roman Catholic Civil Rights Association was launched in 1968 to end discrimination by the majority Protestant community in housing, employment and voting rights in local elections. The ambushing by militant Protestants of peaceful protest marches led to bloody sectarian confrontation between Catholics and Protestants in Belfast and Londonderry. In 1969 British troops were sent to Northern Ireland to attempt to contain the strife. The civil-rights campaign was to win some reforms from the British government, which had assumed direct rule of the province in 1972. But the protests of the minority community were only part of a deeper political and cultural divide between Catholics and Protestants. This divide remains a source of violence and terror in Northern Ireland to this day.
* THE LAW: CRIMINAL AND CIVIL
* GOVERNMENT AND THE PEOPLE
* POLITICAL THEORIES
* INTERNATIONAL ORGANIZATIONS
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The Women's Movement (page 1)
ftsTitle
Women working in a parachute factory during World War II. The widespread use of female labor in traditionally male jobs during both World Wars was to prove a short-lived phenomenon. Once the wars had ended women were encouraged to give up the skills they had learned and to return to their more traditional roles in the home.
The Women's Movement (1 of 2)
Although feminist ideas have been voiced in many ages and cultures, the women's movement in its organized form is a comparatively modern development. Over 150 years, organized feminism has flourished in many countries around the world and has been responsible for obtaining significant improvements in the lives of women. Behind a general belief in equality between the sexes lies a history of campaigning for specific political, legal and social rights.
In 1792 the Englishwoman Mary Wollstonecraft (1759-97) wrote one of the great classics of feminist literature, A Vindication of the Rights of Women. Her vision of an education for girls that would enable them to fulfill their human potential was to provide inspiration for many future reformers. The emancipation of women was very much part of the liberal and progressive reform movements of the 19th and 20th centuries. In its significance, the emergence of the women's movement can be compared with the abolition of slavery, the rise of nationalism in colonial empires, and the political organization of the working classes.
The first wave of feminism
In the first half of the 19th century in the newly industrialized societies of the USA and Britain, the lives of middle-class women were circumscribed by social constraints. Great emphasis was placed on their domestic duties and on voluntary religious and charitable work, but paid employment, particularly outside the home, was discouraged. Working-class women were barred from many of the better paid and traditionally male jobs, and more frequently worked in unskilled sectors of the labor market or in sweatshops (workshops where employees worked long hours in poor conditions for very low wages). All women were denied access to higher education, apprenticeships and professional training, and were legally prevented from the right to suffrage (i.e. the right to vote).
At the Seneca Falls Convention in New York State in 1848 - the first women's rights meeting - the delegates declared that 'all men and women are created equal'. This principle underscored the work of Susan B. Anthony (1820-1906) and Elizabeth Cady Stanton (1815-1902), two of the most prominent campaigners in the powerful American suffrage and equal rights movement. They founded the National Woman Suffrage Association in 1869.
In Britain, feminists started to organize in the 1850s and 1860s, initially concerning themselves with opening up employment opportunities, improving girls' education, and reforming the property laws. Dr Elizabeth Garrett Anderson (1836-1917) qualified as the first woman medical practitioner in 1865, in spite of strong opposition from the medical profession. In 1878 London University became the first such institution to admit women to all its examinations and degrees. A significant legal reform occurred in 1882 when married women obtained the right to own property.
The suffrage movement in Britain began in 1866 when the radical MP and philosopher John Stuart Mill (1806-1873) presented the first female suffrage petition to parliament. By 1900 the National Union of Women's Suffrage Societies, led by Millicent Garrett Fawcett (1847-1929), had become the largest suffrage organization in the country. Its members, called 'suffragists', campaigned for the vote using constitutional and peaceful means. In 1903 a new association of 'suffragettes' was formed - the Women's Social and Political Union - led by Emmeline Pankhurst (1858-1928) and her daughter Christabel (1880-1958). Their more militant methods - such as chaining themselves to railings, breaking windows and hunger strikes - were controversial and sometimes outside the law.
By the early 20th century women were also campaigning for social reforms such as birth control information and baby clinics. Women workers tried to improve their economic position through trade unions such as the National Union of Women Workers, formed in 1906.
In other European countries and in Australia and New Zealand, a strong women's movement also emerged in the mid to late 19th century. French feminists, for example, founded the journal Le Droit des Femmes in 1869 and successfully campaigned for entry into the legal profession in 1900 and the right of married women to control their own earnings in 1907. A small but highly effective movement in New Zealand won the vote for women in 1893 - New Zealand thus becoming the first country to grant national women's suffrage.
The first women priests in Britain were ordained by the Church of England in March 1994. The decision to allow women into the priesthood was strongly contested by certain elements within the Church in England. Women priests are also permitted in Anglican churches in New Zealand, Australia, USA and Ireland.
The Women's Movement (2 of 2)
Contemporary feminism
Although the first wave of feminism had reached its peak by 1930, the middle decades of the 20th century saw continued efforts to improve the position of women, but on a much reduced scale. The widespread use of female labor during World War II, often in the traditionally male-dominated sectors of agriculture and industry, was to be short-lived. At the end of the war many women gave up the new skills they had learned and returned to the home. In the subsequent 'baby boom' years of the 1950s, traditional ideas about women's role in society regained a strong foothold, particularly in the Western world, and the achievements of the first feminists were largely hidden from history. When Simone de Beauvoir (1908-1986) published her analysis of woman's condition in The Second Sex in 1949, her views were regarded by many as being outrageous and even offensive.
The women's movement re-emerged in the late 1960s and early 1970s and was much influenced by radical student politics in North America and Western Europe. At that time it was frequently referred to as the 'Women's Liberation Movement'. In 1963 the American Betty Friedan (1921- ) wrote her classic The Feminine Mystique, which together with The Female Eunuch (1970) by Australian-born Germaine Greer (1939- ) presented a feminist critique of women's subordinate position in society. Women were still conditioned to accept their feminine, domestic and maternal role as paramount. They found it difficult to be active in the men's world of public and political affairs and to enter male-dominated sectors of the economy such as business, industry and banking.
In terms of organization, the women's movement has never been a unified whole, but rather a network of separate campaigns and interest groups. Methods have varied from political lobbying to mass demonstrations and there has been much emphasis on the need for women to work together in separate, women-only groups - for example, the consciousness-raising groups of the 1970s.
Somewhat different in style and aims from the first wave of feminism, the contemporary women's movement has emphasized issues of childcare, sexuality, male violence and the role of men and women in the home. It has raised questions as to how and why men and women are different in the 'nature versus nurture' debate - in other words, apart from physical differences, are women different from men because of their genetic make-up or because of their upbringing? As not all feminists agree on priorities and objectives, division has surfaced since the early 1970s between those who are most concerned with gaining equal rights, those who adopt a 'radical' stance and argue for women's separation from men in political and sexual ways (often adopting lesbianism as a political statement), and those who link feminist aims with other objectives such as socialism.
The international dimension
The women's movement is very much a global phenomenon with organized activity on all continents. Its objectives are often determined by existing conditions and laws in individual countries and cultures.
In the early 20th century nationalist movements sometimes provided women with a liberal framework within which to organize. An Indian Women's Association was founded in 1917 to campaign for suffrage, education and Hindu law reform. In Egypt the Egyptian Feminist Movement, formed in 1923, campaigned for an end to purdah and the compulsory custom of wearing the veil, as well as for suffrage, better working conditions, and educational opportunities. The movement's leader, Huda Shaarawi(1879-1947), became first president of the pan-Arab Feminist Union at its foundation in 1944.
More recently, in Eastern Europe and the Soviet Union, a small but autonomous women's movement has appeared, quite separate from the official women's organizations that have been run by the state. Although the Communist states have provided women with free nurseries and abortion facilities, and have encouraged women to work outside the home - often in traditionally male spheres - dissatisfaction remains. Feminists criticize the double burden of housework and employment and a family structure in which the roles of men and women are still traditional.
Conclusion
Although much has been achieved by the Women's Movement, much remains to be done. In Britain, in spite of campaigns for equal pay since World War I and the Equal Pay Act of 1970, a woman's 'rate for the job' is still less than a man's in many occupations, and women's average earnings on a national scale are approximately only three quarters the average earnings of men. With the exception of the Scandinavian countries, women active in government, in the higher levels of bureaucracy and in the trade unions are in a very small minority. Women are still living in a society largely governed by men.
THE SPREAD OF WOMEN'S SUFFRAGE
New Zealand 1893 Ceylon 1932
Australia 1902 (now Sri Lanka)
Finland 1906 Philippines 1937
Norway <1> 1913 Jamaica 1944
Denmark 1915 France 1945
Soviet Union 1917 Italy 1945
Britain <2> 1918 Japan 1945
Germany 1918 China 1949
Poland 1918 India 1949
Netherlands 1919 Mexico 1952
Canada 1920 Egypt 1956
USA 1920 Kenya 1964
Ireland 1922 Switzerland 1971
Brazil 1934 Jordan 1982
<1> Women in Norway gained partial suffrage in 1907.
<2> Women aged 30 and over were granted the vote in 1918; in 1928 this was extended to women aged 21 and over...
* POLITICAL THEORIES OF THE LEFT
* CIVIL AND HUMAN RIGHTS
* INDUSTRIAL SOCIETY
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p294-1
ftsTitleOverride
Youth Movements (page 1)
ftsTitle
Student demonstrators in Paris in May 1968 dug up the cobbled stones of the street to use as barricades and as ammunition.
Youth Movements (1 of 3)
Young people are not merely passive recipients of adult authority, but active participants in their own history. Past generations of radical students have played a part in fomenting protests and revolutions against the existing order of society. The revolutionary uprisings of 1848 saw students fighting alongside workers on the barricades in capital cities across Europe. A youth movement, in this sense, must have an explicit ideological or political framework and considerable youth involvement in both leadership and organization.
Ordinary young people are more likely to have belonged to a youth movement through membership of an adult-led, voluntary youth organization, such as the Scouts or Guides. Such youth movements offer the limited aim of propagating a code of living, studiously avoiding overt politics or youth activism. Fashion-led 'youth cultures', identified by modes of dress, music and language, represent movements created by and for youth, then rapidly absorbed into the commercial mainstream. The term 'youth movement' is so all-embracing that it can refer to Woodstock Nation and Punk Rockers as well as Woodcraft Folk and the Young Conservatives.
The historical dimension
The pre-industrial concept of youth, ex tending from the age of 15 to 25, was much broader than the generally accepted meaning of adolescence today. The concept of adolescence, covering the teen age years and implying those that are neither children nor adults, was 'discovered' and institutionalized by the 19th-century middle class. Examples of this institutionalization include the re form of the English public-school system and the creation of reformatories for working-class delinquents - who would previously have been sent to an adult jail.
In 1904 the American child psychologist G. Stanley Hall (1844-1924) published his formidable two-volume Adolescence, which gave scientific respectability to the concept. In addition, the abolition of child labor, the introduction of compulsory education, the progressive raising of the school leaving age, rising rates of juvenile crime, and the advent of a teenage consumer market for leisure, are all seen as ushering in the concept of adolescence over the last hundred years.
Adult-led youth movements
The world's first voluntary, uniformed youth organization was the Church-based Boys' Brigade, founded in Glasgow, Scotland, in 1883 by William Alexander Smith (1854-1914), and dedicated to the 'advancement of Christ's Kingdom among Boys, and the promotion of the habits of Obedience, Reverence, Discipline, Self-Respect, and all that tends towards a true Christian manliness'.
* POLITICAL THEORIES OF THE LEFT
* POLITICAL THEORIES OF THE RIGHT
* THE INDUSTRIAL SOCIETY
* THE GROWTH OF TOTALITARIANISM
* CHINA IN THE 20TH CENTURY
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p294-2
ftsTitleOverride
Youth Movements (page 2)
ftsTitle
Skinheads on the march in Oregon. This group promotes religious and racial hatred.
Youth Movements (2 of 3)
In the 1900s, middle-class students in the German Wandervogel (ramblers) movement, inspired by Karl Fischer, rejected stuffy conventions and took up open-air tramping. Richard Schirrmann, a German school teacher, opened the first youth hostel in a small castle, Burg Altena, in 1909. Youth hostels - providing cheap accommodation mainly, though not exclusively, for young people - are now found in most areas of the world.
In England, Major-General Robert Baden-Powell (1857-1941), hero of the siege of Mafeking in the Boer War, founded a uniformed woodcraft movement - the Boy Scouts - in 1908. Like the Boys' Brigade, the Scout movement has spread around the world. A sister organization to the Scouts, the Girl Guide Association, founded in 1910, also has a large membership worldwide.
Mass political movements - youth sections
In 1927 the Italian Boy Scouts were suppressed by Mussolini's Fascists in favor of their youth section, the Balilla. Uniformed youth have contributed to the militancy of mass political movements of both left and right, particularly in the 1930s. Catholic, Protestant and other youth movements in Germany were swallowed up by the Nazi Hitler Youth after 1933, membership of which later became compulsory.
In Britain, some disaffected youth joined the Blackshirts of the British Union of Fascists. The Austrian Red Falcons were an active 1930s socialist youth movement. Soviet Russia had Young Communist groups: Komsomol (age 14-28), Pioneer (9-14) and Octobrist (7-9). Totalitarian regimes invariably recognize the importance of organizing youth, as in present-day North Korea, where the young must subscribe to Communist leader Kim Il-Sung's personality cult.
Postwar youth cultures
The heightened visibility of youth since World War II has led the media to sensationalize the activities of deviant or violent youth cults, rather than report the dull conformism of most young people. British prototypes, much influenced in the 1950s by American cultural icons such as James Dean, Marlon Brando and Elvis Presley, have been eagerly followed elsewhere in Europe, appealing to a wide cross-section of youth experiencing the contradictions of adolescence.
The Teddy Boys of the 1950s, with their long, draped jackets, velvet collars, drainpipe trousers and crepe-soled shoes, were the first of the rebellious working-class youth cults. In the early 1960s came new groups such as the Mods, dressed in Italian-style clothes, and their leather-clad rivals, the Rockers, associated with motorcycles and rock-and-roll music. The Hippies of the late 1960s and after were more middle-class, direct descendants of the novelist Jack Kerouac (1922-69) and the American 'Beat Generation' of the 1950s (the Beatniks). They experimented with drugs, lived in communes, grew their hair long, and were attracted to radical politics.
Skinheads, combining elements of both Mods and Rockers and associated with the racism of the far right, arrived on the football terraces from the late 1960s onwards. Punk Rockers achieved notoriety through the attentions of the media in the late 1970s, with their unique hair-styles, cast-off clothes and aggressive music. Outside these white and largely male-dominated subcultures, Rudies and Rastas represent West Indian youth culture. Several of these youth cultures were recycled in the 1980s.
* POLITICAL THEORIES OF THE LEFT
* POLITICAL THEORIES OF THE RIGHT
* THE INDUSTRIAL SOCIETY
* THE GROWTH OF TOTALITARIANISM
* CHINA IN THE 20TH CENTURY
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Skinheads on the march in Oregon
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Youth Movements (page 3)
ftsTitle
A group of punks in London sport Mohican' hairstyles and vivid eye make-up. Punk rock, typified by the anarchic, anti-establishment songs of the Sex Pistols, began to appear in Britain from the mid-1970s, and has spread all over Europe and North America. Both the music and the appearance of punks deliberately went against what was thought of as conventionally attractive.
Youth Movements (3 of 3)
1968: STUDENTS IN REVOLT
In 1968 middle-class student activists challenged the established order from Prague to Paris, London to Tokyo, San Francisco to Turin, threatening capitalist and socialist regimes alike. Che Guevara and Ho Chi Minh were idolized as fighters against imperialism. Each student demonstration had its own localized grievances, often taking the form of 'sit-ins' - occupations of university buildings in an attempt to gain a greater say in the way universities were run. However, protest against America's war in Vietnam was common to many, as was a far-left (often Trotskyist) ideology. The exaggerated revolutionary optimism of the late 1960s soon faded away, but the capacity of Western parliamentary democracies for social transformation without violence was severely tested.
THE USA In 1967-68 police used tear gas on students protesting against the draft (compulsory conscription into the army) and the war in Vietnam. The confrontational stance of Students for a Democratic Society (SDS) gained widespread support, as did the provocative 'happenings' of the Youth International Party (Yippies), contrived by Jerry Rubin and Abbie Hoffman. On 28 August 1968, the American Democratic Party's National Convention in Chicago was disrupted by a brutal police attack on anti-war demonstrators, and in 1970 four student protesters were shot dead by National Guardsmen at Kent State University. Domestic protests against the war contributed to the US withdrawal of its troops from Vietnam in 1973.
BRITAIN On 17 March 1968 anti-war students in London, led by the activist Tariq Ali and the Vietnam Solidarity Campaign, marched to Grosvenor Square and attempted to storm the American Embassy. There were also sit-ins in many universities. People's Democracy students from Queen's University, Belfast, among them Bernadette Devlin, later a Nationalist MP, demonstrated for the civil rights of the minority Catholic population in a divided Northern Ireland.
FRANCE In May 1968 students took to the barricades in the Latin Quarter of Paris, in Nantes, Bordeaux, Lyon and several other cities, provoking a violent reaction from the police. Media prominence was given to Nanterre University student leader Daniel Cohn-Bendit. The students were mainly protesting against the government's high defense spending at the expense of education and social services, and their demands were reinforced by a wave of industrial strikes. At one point the stability of President de Gaulle's Fifth Republic seemed to be seriously threatened, but the government survived by granting concessions to the workers and placating the students with educational reforms.
WEST GERMANY Students demonstrating against the authoritarian Emergency Powers Act, and demanding a greater voice in their education, were radicalized by the attempted assassination of influential student leader Rudi Dutschke at the hands of a right-wing fanatic. Militants in the German Socialist Students League (SDS) occupied universities, proclaiming the imminence of social revolution.
CZECHOSLOVAKIA Soviet tanks entered Czechoslovakia on 20 August 1968 to end reforms initiated by the liberalizing regime of Alexander Dubcek during the 'Prague Spring' of that year. They encountered some student resistance, including 'sit-in' protests through out Bohemia and Moravia. On 16 January 1969 the student Jan Palach burnt himself to death in Wenceslas Square, Prague, as a protest against the Soviet occupation. A vast display of patriotic solidarity was shown at his funeral.
JAPAN On 4 September 1968, riot police cleared out radicals who had been occupying the private Nihon University for three months. Groups of helmeted students ran in phalanx formation across the campus while their leaders blew whistles. At Tokyo University, on 19 November, Communist and radical students massed into rival armies, each some 6000 strong, both factions insisting on separate negotiations with the administration. Fifty were injured when the two groups clashed.
CHINA The Cultural Revolution of 1966-69 began with demonstrations by students and high-school children, out of which emerged the infamous Red Guards. Fanatical upholders of Chairman Mao's thought, they were instruments of one radical faction competing for domination of the state, rather than student revolutionaries. (Almost forty years after the Communist take-over of China, on 4 June 1989, students campaigning for basic democratic rights were massacred by the People's Army in or near Tiananmen Square, Beijing.) The disappointment of the more radical ideals of the generation of 1968 led some, notably the Baader-Meinhof group in West Germany and the Red Army faction in Japan, to adopt terrorist strategies in the 1970s.
Famine victims at a camp in Ethiopia. The Ethiopian famine of 1984 is estimated to have killed at least 800 000 people. The chronic problems of the country's underdeveloped economy were exacerbated by failed harvests and continuing civil war. Many refugees were still at the camp in 1994, relying on international aid to survive.
Population and Hunger (1 of 4)
Somewhere between 24 June and 11 July 1987, the human population of the planet Earth reached 5 billion. Yet, two hundred years before that, when the world's population was barely more than one billion, political economists such as Thomas Malthus and David Ricardo were already predicting that the human species would breed itself into starvation.
Nevertheless, despite their predictions the human population keeps increasing - but so too does the food supply.
Were the prognoses of Malthus and Ricardo wrong? Or, with the inexorable rise in population growth, is it just a matter of time before mass hunger and starvation prove them right?
What is the relationship between population and hunger?
A direct relationship between population and hunger was indicated 1800 years ago by Tertullian, an early Christian writer from North Africa, when he said 'We weigh upon the world; its resources hardly suffice to support us. As our needs grow larger, so do our protests that already nature does not sustain us.' Over the past 200 years this concern has intensified. With more effective means of communication and more accurate record keeping, knowledge about the disparities in living conditions of peoples all over the world has become more accessible. The Chinese famine of 1876-79 claimed approximately 13 million lives, the 1943 Bengal famine 3 million and the Ethiopian famine of 1984 at least 800 000.
Two contending views have emerged concerning the extent to which burgeoning populations affect food supply. The first is that population must be controlled if persistent malnutrition and starvation are not to become the inevitable lot for a substantial portion of the globe. The second is that, even with a projected global population of 11 billion by the year 2090, there is sufficient food to feed everyone.
These views reflect differing assumptions. Those who link hunger directly with overpopulation adhere to the Malthusian principle that in a world of relatively finite resources, increases in human numbers lower the demand for labor. This in turn lowers the wages of labor, leaving large portions of the population without the means to purchase food. Unless human beings seek to restrict their own reproduction through voluntary celibacy, late marriages, abortion and contraception, so, the neo-Malthusians argue, only the natural forces of war, epidemics and starvation will control the balance between population and food availability.
Such assumptions have been challenged by Karl Marx, who believed that the ways society was structured and its resources allocated were more important than population and finite resources. Others consider the prevalence of hunger as an issue more related to the way that people are deprived of access to food rather than one of its insufficiency.
Although the debate continues, increasing evidence would seem to support the structural view. Over the past 25 years, increases in food production have out-stripped unprecedented global population growth by about 16%. Based upon this figure, it can be deduced that there is sufficient food in the world today to supply every individual with a daily intake of 3600 calories, although 900 million people live on the precipice of malnutrition (2100 calories per day for adult maintenance) or acute hunger (1750 calories per day for short-term adult survival).
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Population and Hunger (page 2)
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A Chinese government poster urging couples to have one child only; in China it is now illegal to have more than one. Since World War II many governments have instituted campaigns to restrict population growth, but these have generally been more effective in the developed world than in the Third World.
Population and Hunger (2 of 4)
Population and poverty
The greatest increases in population continue to occur in countries that are the poorest in terms of their Gross Domestic Product. The populations of many Third World countries depend upon subsistence agriculture as their principal economic activity. These countries have limited social services and lack most forms of advanced agricultural technology. Under such conditions, rural families tend to have large families, ensuring a degree of labor as well as support for members of the family in their old age. Hence, large families - as was formerly the case in the developed world - continue to be an essential norm for the poor, who represent the majority in most Third World societies.
Ironically, the emphasis placed upon eliminating disease amongst the young - for example through mass immunization programs - has lowered levels of infant mortality. This has increased the population in many Third World countries, often leaving members of families without prospects for work. Thus towns and cities are seen as havens for alternative employment, although urban centers in underdeveloped countries offer limited job opportunities, and migration to towns and cities has done little to break the poverty cycle.
Hunger and poverty
There is a general belief that the forces of nature are principally to blame for the hunger that threatens much of humanity. Yet the effects of nature cannot be divorced from the issue of man-made poverty. In the USA in 1987, an extensive area in the southeast of the country was stricken by drought. No one died, no lives were threatened. During the same period, drought-affected Ethiopia needed over 1.3 million tons of emergency food to save the lives of over 4 million affected people. The differences between the two situations underscore the relationship between poverty and hunger. In the USA, available resources had been invested in extensive irrigation and water schemes. Food was available, if required, from a well-developed food-reserve system, and farmers were ultimately protected by insurance and loan schemes provided by the federal and state governments. Alternative employment was generally available to those whose assets were not otherwise protected.
In Ethiopia, as in many other Third World countries, the resources required to develop such support systems are generally not available. Without them, people become more and more vulnerable to the forces of nature, and their poverty intensifies. Ecological degradation demonstrates this well. With few resources, farmers in the Third World must till their fields continuously, leaving no respite for their recovery. Fertilizers are expensive, and therefore not readily available. The topsoil of these lands may have been held in place by trees that have now been felled to be used as fuel for which the poor have no real alternatives. The trees become the victims of poverty as does the land. Rain washes away valuable topsoil and the farmer gets less and less for his efforts. His situation, faced with an inevitably declining income, deteriorates. Subsistence agriculture teeters ever more frequently on the brink of disaster.
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Population and Hunger (page 3)
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A child in Somalia lies dying on the street. A relief worker shows the emaciated body that is the result of starvation. Starvation, the result of failed harvests, civil war and other factors, usually affects children and elderly people first.
Population and Hunger (3 of 4)
Poverty, population and development
If the world produces sufficient food to feed itself but the impoverished are increasingly exposed to threats of malnutrition and starvation, the issue seems to be how best to give the poor access to the food that is clearly available rather than one of population reduction. Greater access can be achieved through effective development. Such development must either help rural families to farm more effectively for profit - so enabling them to purchase a wider variety of foods - or allow them to find alternative means of generating income.
But there are three barriers to effective development that need to be overcome. On the international level, the majority of Third World countries are saddled with international debts that prevent them from funding the extensive development programs that they require. Foreign exchange to pay these debts and to seek new loans is often hindered by the trading restrictions of the developed nations, or by the fluctuations in international market prices for the few goods that poor nations may have to sell. And even when development assistance comes from outside donors, all too often it is aid that is tied to the sorts of projects that may benefit the donor and the recipient government, but not necessarily citizens at the grass-roots level.
At the national level, many of the poorest countries are faced with contending demands that cannot be met with their limited resources. The fact that domestic and regional instability is also often prevalent means that a high proportion of national wealth is spent on armaments rather than development. Third World governments also have to expand resources on providing subsidized food for potentially volatile populations in towns and cities - which is often purchased by governments at prices that leave no incentives for farmers. Governments of developing countries, frequently prompted by developed countries, may also view development itself as a 'top-down' process: in other words, more visible large-scale projects such as road and dam construction are pursued, instead of projects that contribute directly to improving the lives of the poor.
It is at local levels that the cumulative effects of instability and lack of effective development take their hardest toll. These effects are often compounded by a strict adherence to traditions, sometimes reinforced by religions that rationalize but do not necessarily ease the plight of the poor. Lack of education and appropriate technology means that traditional working methods are rarely abandoned, and consequently the poverty of the poor is intensified.
Although with increases in family incomes the size of families decrease, this fact does not diminish the more general point that poverty rather than population size lies at the heart of hunger. Whether a population is large or small, there is little evidence that size in itself influences the way societies are structured or the way resources are allocated. In short, population is related to hunger but it is far from being its necessary cause.
The role of the international community
Since the World Food Conference of 1974, the international community has sought to play a greater role in relieving the crises of hunger found in many parts of the world. International organizations such as the United Nations World Food Program, the Food and Agriculture Organization, the United Nations Children's Fund and the United Nations Development Program have all attempted to assist countries where threats of famine and severe malnutrition are rife. These international organizations are supported by the efforts of donor governments (which either give assistance through international organizations or directly to affected countries) or through voluntary non-governmental organizations that are working in affected countries.
These organizations work on two levels. In times of severe food shortages they provide food and medicines for the hungry; frequently they also fund development programs to stimulate economic growth. Although in the past these development efforts have not always addressed the real causes of hunger, increasingly both Third World governments and members of the international community recognize the need to focus their assistance directly upon the poor.
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Starvation: child in Somalia
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Population and Hunger (4 of 4)
POPULATION FACTS
Growth of world population by billion and year
World population Year Elapsed years
1 billion 1805 indefinite
2 billion 1926 121
3 billion 1960 34
4 billion 1974 14
5 billion 1987 13
6 billion 1998 11
7 billion 2010 12
8 billion 2023 13
9 billion 2040 17
10 billion 2070 30
The projected slowing down of world population growth to a peak of 10 billion in 2070 is based on the following assumptions: increased use of contraception in developing countries, and an aging of the global population (with fertile adults making up a smaller percentage of the whole).
Population growth by geographic region, 1985-2025
Region
WORLD Africa Asia America Europe Oceania
Population (millions)
1985 4,840 560 2,819 666 770 25
2025 8.188 1,495 4.758 1.035 863 36
Growth (%)
1985-90 1.71 3.05 1.80 1.58 0.45 1.37
2020-25 0.94 1.74 0.89 0.72 0.15 0.59
Birth rate (per 1000)
1985-90 26.9 45.0 27.4 23.4 14.7 19.6
2020-25 17.6 24.1 17.0 15.3 13.0 15.0
Death rate (per 1000)
1985-90 9.8 14.5 9.2 7.9 10.3 8.2
2020-25 8.2 6.7 8.1 8.2 11.5 9.1
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The Third World and the Developed World (page 1)
ftsTitle
A Cuban farmer works his oxen. Cuban farmers have been forced to use beasts of burden because of fuel shortages. During the Cold War Cuba received aid from the USSR, but since this has ended Cuba has faced severe economic difficulties, exacerbated by the imposition of economic sanctions.
The Third World and the Developed World (1 of 4)
The international system that emerged after World War II was designed and dominated by the developed nations. Apart from the Latin American countries, most Third World countries were still under colonial rule. Although there was a genuine feeling among European governments that decolonization was just and proper, there were other reasons for changes in this area after 1945.
Economically, France and Britain could no longer sustain major commitments abroad. Moreover, they believed they could retain the advantages of colonialism while granting independence to their colonies. The newly independent countries had no choice but to participate in an existing international system and economic order that reflected the needs of the developed world. Thus Britain and France found it was possible to respondpositively to demands for independencewithout sacrificing trade and economic links that were important to them. The USA developed similar ties with Latin America.
Change was not automatic, however, and nationalist movements often had to organize mass protests or even armed struggle against colonial rule. With the immense costs incurred by Britain and France in fighting World War II, followed by the independence of India in 1947, it seemed inevitable that the tide of decolonization could not be re versed.
The legacy of colonization
The common feature of the newly in dependent countries is that, alongside Latin America, they are poorer than the developed world. They are very often in debt to the developed world or its banking institutions; and, in a significant number of cases, they are poverty-stricken. Moreover, there appears to be no way in which they can escape poverty and debt except by dependence upon the developed world. Most developing countries are in the southern hemisphere, hence the relationship is also a North-South issue. Following the end of the Cold War,the North-South relationship has replaced East-West rivalry as a cause of concern.
The transfer of resources from North to South is of immediate importance: firstly, to help the Southern states face the future with confidence; secondly, to correct the imbalance in the transfer of resources that took place during the period of colonization; and thirdly, because effective demand from the South would stimulate Northern economies, create employment and increase global political stability. But to achieve such goals, the countries of the South must also undertake reforms so that they can attain their full economic potential.
Because of their weak economies, development has been difficult, and national unity has often been impossible to sustain in Third World countries. Many Third World countries gained their independence with the same boundaries that had been established by the colonial powers. In many cases, these boundaries differed from those reflecting traditional tribal, economic and cultural links. The attempts of modern states to create a national unity over and above traditional patterns of interaction have not always been successful and are not helped by underdevelopment and poverty. Particularly in Africa, very few local inhabitants had been properly trained by the colonial powers to become the skilled administrators and technicians of the new, independent states. Viewed in this light, the achievements of many Third World countries since independence - the establishment of transport, education and health networks, and the extension of public administration - are impressive.
* TRADE
* THE UNITED NATIONS
* REGIONAL, ECONOMIC AND MILITARY ALLIANCES
* POPULATION AND HUNGER
* DECOLONIZATION
* THE COLD WAR
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ftsTitleOverride
The Third World and the Developed World (page 2)
ftsTitle
Vietnamese traders take their fish traps to market. In the 1980s Vietnam's economy suffered from an underdeveloped infrastructure and lack of foreign investment. However, increasing investment and aid in the 1990s has seen a turn around in the fortunes of the Vietnamese economy.
The Third World and the Developed World (2 of 4)
Zones of conflict
With the emergence of the USA and the USSR as the two opposing superpowers after World War II, both countries looked for allies in the Third World. The numerous regional conflicts of the Cold War of ten saw one superpower engaged in hostilities with the allies of the other.
The protagonists in the wars between Israel and its Arab neighbors were armed and supported by the USA and the Soviet Union respectively. In southern Africa, the USA was for some time supportive of South Africa's military incursions into neighboring independent Angola, because the Soviet Union and Cuba, in turn, supported the Marxist government of Angola. In such cases, it was the Third World countries involved who suffered most. War added to the problems of underdevelopment.
The USA and the Soviet Union did not confine their competition in the Third World to visible military clashes. Both attempted to secure allies through large-scale aid programs. Under Khrushchev's leadership (1953-64), the USSR sought to use aid to win over recently independent African countries, and spent most money on those they thought might develop along socialist lines. Later Soviet leaders tended to confine significant aid to countries of strategic value, such as Ethiopia, which is of importance because of its position near the Red Sea and the Suez Canal, through which a great deal of the world's shipping continues to pass. The USA has developed a very large aid budget, but the largest portions of this aid go firstly to Israel and secondly to Egypt, precisely to maintain influence in the Middle Eastern and Red Sea areas. Aid (much of which is directly military) has often been given, therefore, not for the sake of development within a Third World country, but for the sake of political advantage in the competitive world of international relations.
Current economic domination
Aid by itself usually forms only a small part of the finance a country needs to operate properly. When it comes to large-scale economic transactions, the West rather than the East has dominated the Third World. The economic domination of the Third World by developed industrial nations is sometimes referred to as neo-imperialism. The 24 richest Western states together account for 60% of world industrial production, 73% of world trade, and 80% of all aid to developing countries. More importantly, all of the great commercial banks are found in the West, as are the world's two great financial institutions, the International Monetary Fund (IMF) and the World Bank. Originally, the IMF and World Bank helped Europe to redevelop after World War II but, as Third World countries became independent, they also turned to these organizations. These, together with the commercial banks, loaned money for development, to the Third World and (since 1989-91) to Eastern Europe.
Difficult international economic conditions in the 1970s and 1980s involved rising oil costs and deteriorating terms of trade for many other raw materials: developing nations had to pay more for oil but received less for their own exports. They therefore had to borrow from the commercial banks who at that time, because they were handling oil revenues, had much to lend. As economic recession hit the West, however, interest rates rose and Third World countries were obliged to pay more interest on their loans than they had expected. Meanwhile, income from ex ports continued to decline. Particularly after 1982, commercial banks grew reluctant to make further large new loans to the Third World countries, which increasingly turned to the IMF.
The IMF, however, made finance avail able only if a country organized its financial planning and management with the IMF's approval. But local development was often thereby compromised and living conditions for Third World citizens became harsher. Indeed for many such countries, debt servicing (payment of interest on loans) can absorb the largest portion of income earned from exports, leaving very little for development or even for maintaining current facilities and infrastructure (schools, hospitals, transport systems, etc.). In the late 1980s, several African countries exported more money in the form of loan and interest payments than anything else.
The world's largest debtor nations are found in Latin America. So great is the debt of Mexico, Brazil and Argentina together that it is thought that any refusal or inability to repay it would cause chaos within the Western banking system. Thus the lending banks may become vulnerable to their borrowers.
* TRADE
* THE UNITED NATIONS
* REGIONAL, ECONOMIC AND MILITARY ALLIANCES
* POPULATION AND HUNGER
* DECOLONIZATION
* THE COLD WAR
Outline
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The Third World and the Developed World (page 3)
ftsTitle
Drought in Africa has forced whole communities to desert their villages. This village in Mauritania has been vacated because of the failure of the rains. Many of the poorer nations do not have the resources to withstand the difficulties of a harsh climate.
The Third World and the Developed World (3 of 4)
Current aid
Despite the refusal of Western governments to implement the proposals of the Brandt report there has been Western action to help meet emergency conditions. Famine in Ethiopia and Mozambique brought disaster relief from both governments and the public. In many countries voluntary charities are deeply involved in raising money for the starving in the Third World. Bob Geldof's Band Aid was one example of work by private citizens to raise money for the hungry.
The problem with emergency aid is that often it does not address fundamental problems. Ethiopia, for example, was a zone of conflict subject to East-West competition. In Mozambique, the war between the government and rebels supported by South Africa has prevented any chance of national development.
Brandt was correct in saying that North-South relations are as important as East-West relations. The tragedy of the 20th century is that, while one part of the world has developed, the larger part has suffered the loss of its chance for development in this century. It is a loss that in the long run could also imperil the well-being of the developed world.
Child labor is still used in some third world countries. Here children in Pakistan are making rugs.
The Third World and the Developed World (4 of 4)
THE BRANDT COMMISSION
The most comprehensive plan for confronting both the problems of debt and slow development was that put forward in 1979 in the Brandt Report. This was prepared by the Independent Commission on International Development Issues under the chairmanship of former West German Chancellor Willy Brandt (1913-92).
The Report made four major sets of recommendations: firstly, a global food program to stimulate food production in the fight against hunger and famine; secondly, a global energy program; thirdly, greater participation for Third World countries in organizations such as the IMF and World Bank; fourthly, and most importantly in the immediate term, increased financial aid to Third World countries, both in the form of grants and low-interest loans, and in the reduction or cancellation of many existing debts, to allow Third World countries to rescue themselves from the current debt trap and recommence the process of development. The Report also stressed that vast expenditure on arms by the rich nations of the West takes potential resources away from the impoverished countries of the Third World.
Although the Brandt Report argued that its proposed plan was in Western self-interest, Western governments paid little attention to it. However, it enabled the Western public to become aware of what could and should be done in the mutual interest.
* TRADE
* THE UNITED NATIONS
* REGIONAL, ECONOMIC AND MILITARY ALLIANCES
* POPULATION AND HUNGER
* DECOLONIZATION
* THE COLD WAR
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Threats to the Environment (page 1)
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Trees damaged by acid rain. The acidity of the rain strips the leaves of their protective covering of wax, which not only causes direct damage to their cells but means that the leaves that are left are unprotected from desiccation and from fungal and bacterial infections.
Threats to the Environment (1 of 4)
Perhaps the most disturbing surprise of the late 20th century has been the discovery of the frailty of the world's environment. The last wildernesses have almost gone, and it is possible that our children will see the large mammals only in zoos or on film. The tropical rain forests of South America, Africa and Southeast Asia, which provide much of the oxygen we breathe, are disappearing at an alarming rate; the ozone layer, which protects us from harmful radiation, is being eaten away. As the threat of a nuclear war recedes, the new battle is to protect the Earth's biological and natural systems from human exploitation.
At the time of the last great extinction on Earth - the disappearance of the dinosaurs 65 million years ago - only a handful of species every thousand years were becoming extinct. Now we are losing perhaps a hundred species a day. This is the time of the greatest mass extinction of life forms in the history of life on Earth.
The rise of industry in the northern hemisphere has brought with it material wealth at the expense of the local environment. Opencast mining in Europe and elsewhere has scarred the countryside. Cities and factories have spread, and the smoke from their chimneys has released harmful chemicals into the air. Cars to transport burgeoning populations are multiplying, adding their own pollutants to the atmosphere.
The source of the environmental problems of today lies in the lifestyle of the industrialized nations. The widespread use of disposable convenience goods that are energy inefficient' is wasteful of scarce resources; the batteries that power personal stereos, for example, take 50 times more energy to manufacture than they produce. A developed Third World that follows the environmentally damaging practices of the developed nations could propel the Earth into an ecological holocaust within decades.
Air pollution
Internal combustion engines produce a cocktail of potentially dangerous gases, such as carbon monoxide, hydrocarbons and nitrogen oxides. The latter two gases form, under the influence of sunlight, low atmosphere ozone, a major irritant and air pollutant. It is the main ingredient in photochemical smog, which affects contemporary large cities. Lead, which used to be commonly added to petrol to improve the smooth running of engines, can lead to damage of the brain and nervous system, especially in children. The switch to lead-free petrol has brought its own problems. Benzene, toluene and xylene, which are known to be carcinogenic (cancer causing), are found in larger quantities in lead-free petrol than in leaded petrol.
But the major form of air pollution comes from another source. Coal-fired power stations and other industrial processes emit sulfur dioxide and nitrogen oxides, which, when combined with atmospheric moisture, create acid rain (dilute sulfuric or nitric acid). Acid rain (or snow) is the main atmospheric fallout of industrial pollutants, although these may also occur as dry deposits (such as ash). Acid rain damages forests, plants and agriculture, raises the acid level in lakes and ground water, killing fish and other water-bound life, and contaminating drinking water.
Temperate forests have been seriously damaged by acid rain. The Black Forest in Germany has been steadily losing its trees through Waldsterben (tree death). The former Czechoslovakia has the highest percentage of damaged trees in Europe - 71%. In southern Norway 80% of the lakes are devoid of fish life, and Sweden has 20000 acidified lakes.
Acid rain upsets the fine chemical balance in lakes that are home to numerous species of fish. Salmon, roach and trout are highly sensitive to pH (i.e. acid) levels in their habitat. Even a slight dip in pH levels causes heavy metals such as aluminum, mercury, lead, zinc and cadmium to become more concentrated, decreasing the amount of oxygen the fish can absorb and eventually causing their death. The absence of large fish destabilizes the ecosystem and the effects are felt throughout the food chain. The ecosystem is seriously depleted, and only some smaller creatures, such as water beetles, seem able to survive.
Acid rain also causes damage to the soil. High levels of acid rain in the soil cause lead and other heavy metals to become concentrated and interrupt the life-cycles of microorganisms. The bacteria and fungi that help break down organic matter into nutrients are disturbed, and soils can lose their ability to support forests or agriculture.
There are various methods of reducing the amount of pollutants reaching the atmosphere, such as lead-free petrol, catalytic converters attached to car exhausts (which destroy some of the harmful gases), and filter systems that reduce dangerous emissions from power stations and industry.
Water pollution
Rivers and seas are also used as dumping grounds for waste products. Excessive amounts of domestic sewage, fertilizers and other toxic chemicals thus disposed of can destroy the life forms that live in water. Oil spills at sea such as the Exxon Valdez disaster off Alaska in 1989 and the multiple leaks from the overland pipeline near Usinsk in Arctic Russia in October 1994, which released an estimated 272000 tons of crude oil into three major rivers, can cause the deaths of thousands of birds and fish and destroy local ecosystems. Apart from the harmful effect of the oil itself, the chemical cleansing agents cause further ecological damage. Other forms of water pollution involve industrial effluents from factories and warm water from electricity-generating power stations.
Some of the most toxic materials used by man are polychlorinated biphenyls (PCBs). PCBs are widely used in light fittings, kiss-proof lipstick and in commercial cooling systems and transformers. PCBs are water-soluble, but find their way into the food chain through their propensity to dissolve in fats. The chemicals lie in sediments after being released into the environment and pass into the fat of smaller animals, eventually reaching the higher mammals at the top of the food chain.
Pesticides
Increasingly high levels of pesticides are also present in the bodies of most creatures. More than 2300000 tons of pesticides were produced in the world in 1986, and their use is increasing worldwide at a rate of nearly 13% per year. Like PCBs they become concentrated in the bodies of animals at the top of the food chain, animals such as seals and humans.
While producers claim that without pesticides the world population would starve, there is little evidence to support this. Pests tend to become immune to pesticides, while their predators are contaminated by them and consequently decline in population. The resulting imbalance creates more pests rather than fewer because their natural enemies have been poisoned.
* SMALL MOLECULES
* WEATHER AND CLIMATE
* PHOTOSYNTHESIS
* THE BIOSPHERE
* ECOSYSTEMS
* AGRICULTURE AND FOOD
* ENERGY
* MINING, MINERALS AND METALS
* RUBBER AND PLASTICS
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Threats to the Environment (page 2)
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Modern waste contains a high proportion of non-degradable products - plastics, metals and chemicals. These items can cause long-term contamination if disposed of incorrectly. Attempts have been made to recycle much of today's rubbish. In the UK, industry produces about 100 million tons of waste each year, of which about 27 million tons are recycled, but British domestic sources produce a further 20 million tons, of which only 1 million tons is recycled.
Threats to the Environment (2 of 4)
Global warming
Pollution can have subtler but potentially more devastating effects on the environment than just poisoning. The so-called greenhouse gases (carbon dioxide, nitrous oxides, methane, CFCs) now threaten the world's climate by altering the rate at which heat energy escapes from the planet. Average temperatures on Earth have increased by 0.5
C (0.9
F) since 1880, a phenomenon called global warming. Initially, scientific opinion suggested a catastrophic rise in temperature, an average increase of 4.5
C (8.1
F) by the year 2050. A combination of additional information and improved understanding of the processes involved in global warming now suggest an average warming of 2.0
C (3.6
F) by 2050. Atmospheric warming will result in new migrations of plant and animal species. The distribution of agricultural crops will change, as will the pests and diseases that feed on agricultural species and on humans. Sea levels will also rise due to global warming. Polar ice caps will gradually melt and the warm surface layers of the oceans will expand by up to 10 cm (4 in). In total, the sea level may rise by as much as 0.5 m (1 1/2 ft), causing an increase in local flood problems.
* SMALL MOLECULES
* WEATHER AND CLIMATE
* PHOTOSYNTHESIS
* THE BIOSPHERE
* ECOSYSTEMS
* AGRICULTURE AND FOOD
* ENERGY
* MINING, MINERALS AND METALS
* RUBBER AND PLASTICS
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Threats to the Environment (page 3)
ftsTitle
A hole in the ozone layer, as shown on a satellite map on 30 November 1992. The hole is visible here as the deep blue, black and purple area covering Antarctica and beyond.
Threats to the Environment (3 of 4)
Nuclear power
While the nuclear industry has always maintained that its reactors are safe and clean, accidents at Three Mile Island in the USA in 1979 and at Chernobyl in Ukraine in 1986, have cast doubt on these claims. The National Radiological Protection Board in Britain estimates that 2000 people will develop cancer in Europe over the next 50 years because of the accident at Chernobyl. But other agencies put the figure closer to 40000.
Quite apart from the horror of accidents such as Chernobyl, the nuclear industry poses the problem of how to dispose of the waste that it produces. Much of its waste will remain highly toxic and radioactive for tens of thousands of years. In the USA, high-level waste is stored in stainless steel tanks, which are cooled and buried. But in Britain high-level waste is stored in a process called vitrification. This involves solidifying the radioactive material in glass to make it easier to handle.
Lower-level waste is usually buried in shallow sites, or in abandoned mines. The problem of nuclear waste disposal has not been solved, only delayed. Most methods involve moving the waste to safer places ready for the future. It has even been suggested that waste be injected' out into space. But the risk of a disaster such as befell the space shuttle Challenger has killed such ideas.
Environmental awareness
There are signs that the world is waking up to the environmental threats facing it. However, it is one thing for governments to accept that there is a serious problem, it is quite another to face up to the unpalatable economic policies necessary to rectify the situation. Governments have failed to agree on reductions in the carbon-dioxide emissions that accelerate global warming because they say this would hamper economic growth. While CFC production has not yet been phased out, the Montreal Convention of March 1989 commits the international community to a 100% reduction by the year 2000.
The ground swell of public opinion will determine whether economic growth continues to be put before the health of the environment. Green' politics have become an element of modern society, but the phenomenon of green consumerism is the most powerful force for change. Consumers are increasingly opting for goods that are environmentally less damaging (such as non-toxic washing-up liquid), and are prepared to pay more for them. When industry finds that it is not economically viable to be environmentally irresponsible then the tide will have turned.
* SMALL MOLECULES
* WEATHER AND CLIMATE
* PHOTOSYNTHESIS
* THE BIOSPHERE
* ECOSYSTEMS
* AGRICULTURE AND FOOD
* ENERGY
* MINING, MINERALS AND METALS
* RUBBER AND PLASTICS
Outline
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Threats to the Environment (page 4)
ftsTitle
Water pollution caused by an oil spill is cleaned up in a river. The spill in Russia is thought to be the largest ever, up to 3 times larger than the Exxon Valdez.
Threats to the Environment (4 of 4)
THE OZONE LAYER
Ozone is a gas made up of three oxygen atoms (O3). It is inherently unstable, and is formed partly by the action of sunlight on normal oxygen, which is made up of pairs of oxygen atoms (O2). Ozone is a minor constituent of the atmosphere, found in varying concentrations between sea level and a height of 60 km (37 mi). Most ozone is in the layer of the atmosphere called the stratosphere , which extends from around 10-12 km (6-7.5 mi) to about 45-50 km (28-31 mi) above the Earth's surface. The ozone layer filters out harmful ultraviolet radiation from the Sun. Ultraviolet radiation can cause skin cancer and eye cataracts, and can damage crops. During every southern-hemisphere spring since the 1970s, holes have developed in the ozone layer above Antarctica. There the effects are minimal, but there are signs that similar holes are appearing over the heavily populated northern latitudes, which include Europe, North America and Russia. The culprits are chlorofluorocarbons (CFCs) - man-made gases used in air conditioning, fridges, many aerosols and some foam-blown cartons. The gases released from these products collect in the upper atmosphere and there decay into chloride gas, which destroys the ozone. The development of safe substitutes for aerosols, plastic-foam materials and for refrigeration and air-conditioning systems is lagging behind the need for a rapid phasing-out of CFCs. Even if all production of CFCs was banned immediately, the chemicals would take centuries to fall to the levels of the mid-1970s, and until 2050 even to drop to the level of 1985.
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